Myth Notes

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0 height="100%"><tr> <td valign="top" width=200 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B>Mr. Fleck's World of English</B></FONT>    |     <A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mr. Flecks World of English"><U>home</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id17.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Meet Your Teacher"><U>Meet Your Teacher</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id18.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Assignments"><U>Assignments</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id19.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Related Links"><U>Related Links</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id20.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Contact Me"><U>Contact Me</U></A>   |   <B>Myth Notes</B>   |   <A HREF="id22.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Cinema Notes"><U>Cinema Notes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id23.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Cinema Review Sheets"><U>Cinema Review Sheets</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id24.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Blank Review Sheet"><U>Blank Review Sheet</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id25.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Effective Writing Notes"><U>Effective Writing Notes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id26.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Comp I Notes"><U>Comp I Notes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id27.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Speech Notes"><U>Speech Notes</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id28.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="AP Notes"><U>AP Notes</U></A></div> <div> Myth Notes</div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="04a418e0.jpg" border=0 width="321" height="398" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>MYTHOLOGY: THE BIG QUESTIONS</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>All Myths/Belief Systems Attempt to Answer the Following:</I></div> <bR> <div> 1. Why are we here?</div> <div> 2. How did we get here?</div> <div> 3. Are we alone?</div> <div> 4. What's the meaning of life....Especially MY life?</div> <div> 5. What happens when we die?</div> <div> 6. Is the world going to end (Western cultures)?</div> <bR> <div> <I>These are the issues we will use to study all topics this semester.</I></div> <bR> <div>                                                          *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> Chance vs. Fate/Destiny</div> <bR> <div> Chance (or "luck") - the idea that good/bad things happen randomly and for no particular reason; people who believe in chance often say things like, "He was just in the wrong place at the wrong time," and, "I sure lucked out this time!" This was not a popular idea in the ancient world, but has caught fire in modern times.</div> <bR> <div> Fate/Destiny - the idea that everything that happens "happens for a reason," and that each of us has some purpose in life that we will fulfill whether we like it or not; people who believe in fate/destiny often say things like, "It was just meant to be," and, "Someday, maybe we'll understand why this happened."  The Greeks were seriously into this idea and explored it endlessly in their myths.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> So, which type of person are you?</div> <bR> <div>                                                                     *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>"Trade-Offs"</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>You can't have everything.  Where would you put it? --Steven Wright</I></div> <bR> <div> Given: Life is uncertain.</div> <div> Given: Life isn't always fair.</div> <div> Given: Bad things happen to good people (and vice versa).</div> <bR> <div> In general: Mythologies/religions/belief systems encourage postponing immediate gratifications to accumulate future rewards.  "Suffer now for rewards later" (the grasshopper/ant story).  This is an example of a <U>trade-off</U>.</div> <bR> <div> --dragging yourself to school rather than sleeping until noon</div> <div> --driving a beat-up wreck for one more year so as to pay for</div> <div>    training/schooling</div> <div> --going into the military to offset future educational/healthcare</div> <div>    costs</div> <div> --spending at least 30 minutes three times a week in vigorous</div> <div>    exercise and eating fibers in an attempt to ward off disease</div> <div>    in later years</div> <div> --quitting any harmful practice (smoking, excessive boozing, </div> <div>    drugs, excessive eating, reckless sexual behavior, etc.)</div> <div> --kissing your boss' backside (figuratively!)</div> <div> --not stealing what doesn't belong to you, even if you really</div> <div>    need whatever it is</div> <div> --not beating/killing those who really annoy you</div> <bR> <div> <I>None of these trade-offs are certain; all involve risk assessment.</I></div> <bR> <div> In how many places have you heard these basic rules?  In some places, violating these rules is called "sinning."  Have you ever felt guilty over something you've done to violate these principles?  What is guilt, anyway?</div> <bR> <div> <I>Given: The idea of trading-off is often at odds with our instincts.  And given the three "givens" above, how can such trade-offs make sense?</I></div> <bR> <div> Question: What would happen if everyone just did what they wanted to?</div> <bR> <div>                                                             *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>What Is Mythology?</B></div> <bR> <div> I. Mythology - the system of myths told by a given race/culture; also, the study of myths in general.</div> <bR> <div> Myth - an account of the deeds of a god or a supernatural being; relates (supposedly) to historical events, or serves to explain some practice, belief, institution, or natural phenomenon.</div> <bR> <div> Myths aren't necessarily "lies" if they're found to be "untrue"; rather, mythologies can be used to build up a society and point out its better elements.</div> <bR> <div> All cultures have a collection of myths that help define them.</div> <bR> <div> II. Why Do We Need Myths?</div> <bR> <div> According to Sociology (the study of human societies), there are seven things we can't deal with that force us to believe in myths.  Sociologists refer to these items as The Seven Realities.</div> <bR> <div> Humans are:</div> <bR> <div> 1. insignificant - about 6 billion on the planet; wars, distribution of wealth,</div> <div>                               treatment of the weak prove this</div> <bR> <div>      <I>Mythology responds by making us important.  "All men are created equal"; </I></div> <div> <I>    Psychology stressing the individual</I></div> <bR> <div> 2. cosmic orphans - there are 100,000,000 billion stars, 10 billion galaxies--</div> <div>                                   the universe doesn't seem to care about us</div> <bR> <div>             <I>Mythology tells us we are not orphans; the supernatural is concerned</I></div> <div> <I>           with us, even monitoring us…..</I></div> <bR> <div> 3. biological accidents - there doesn't seem to be anything like the human race</div> <div>                                                anywhere</div> <bR> <div>                   <I>Mythology says we were specially created, and we are the way we are today</I></div> <div> <I>                 because of this creation and the events that followed.</I></div> <bR> <div> 4. lacking in free will - what we do is tied to what we can afford to do, not to what we</div> <div>                                       we want to do.</div> <bR> <div>                 <I>Mythology provides hope for the future: suffer now, get rewards later.</I></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> 5. meaningless - What's the meaning of life?  How should we live?  Why?</div> <bR> <div>           <I>Mythology provides moral and ethical codes: "We do this because bad</I></div> <div> <I>         Things happen if we don't!" (e.g., superstitions)</I></div> <bR> <div> 6. symbol-shifting magicians - when culture doesn't work anymore, we create</div> <div>                                                     new cultures (changing the meaning of words,</div> <div>                                                     re-working old religious symbols into new ones, etc.)</div> <bR> <div>         <I>Mythology provides "grounding"; ancient truths are still true even in the</I></div> <div> <I>       "new" world because superior beings tell us so.</I></div> <bR> <div> 7. lonely and incomplete on our own - we crave interaction and connection</div> <div>                                                                       (family, friends, etc.)</div> <bR> <div>                     <I>Mythology provides occasions just for this--worship, gatherings,</I></div> <div> <I>                   Cultural holidays, etc.</I></div> <bR> <div> <I>                                                                    *   *   *</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>Originating A Myth</B></div> <bR> <div> Myths aren't usually born in written form.</div> <bR> <div> 1. oral tradition - the passing on of history by word of mouth, handed down</div> <div>                               from generation to generation in an attempt to make sense</div> <div>                               of the world</div> <bR> <div> Those responsible for keeping these traditions were considered to be the "wise" of society, and thus a <I>caste system</I> often developed.</div> <bR> <div> 2. observation - looking around, particularly toward the skies</div> <bR> <div> Note: The #7 appears in many mystical traditions….Why?</div> <div> Because it's the number of 'heavenly bodies' visible to the</div> <div> Ancients with the naked eye (5 planets, plus the sun & moon).</div> <bR> <div> The SUN is a very profound element in ALL mythologies.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> 3. codifying - with the invention of writing, oral traditions are</div> <div>                          written down (scripted); thus, the notion arises</div> <div>                          of <I>Scripture</I> (that which is written).</div> <bR> <div> In some cases, myths that were intended to be parables were made sacred by the process of writing.  Certain cultures still treat these myths as literal truth.</div> <bR> <div> Types of Myths</div> <bR> <div> <I>Myths are classified by the THEME they portray.</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>1. Cosmological</B> (or Cosmogonic) <B>Myths</B></div> <div> a. relate how the world came to be</div> <div> b. generally feature powerful deities</div> <div> c. often relate a "fall"; all was good until something happened to rob the peace and happiness</div> <div> d. can be the most important cultural myth</div> <div> e. can serve as a pattern for all other myths</div> <bR> <div> <B>2. Foundation Myths</B></div> <div> --recount the founding of important cultural places (cities, temples, etc.)</div> <div> Note: cities were seen early on as expressions of sacred power</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>3. Myths of Cultural Heroes</B></div> <div> --describe actions/characters of beings responsible for creation/discovery of a particular cultural event or process or artifact (e.g., Hercules, George Washington, Babe Ruth, Robin Hood, etc.)</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div>                   <B>-- The Special Child --</B></div> <bR> <div> -- a notion that appears in mythologies/religions across all cultural lines</div> <bR> <div> -- the idea is that God/the gods have a plan to work through this specific child, and </div> <div>     nothing can stop those plans</div> <bR> <div> Common Elements In A Special Child Legend</div> <bR> <div> 1. the conception of the child is often miraculous; can be a virgin birth, or the child</div> <div> can be born to a women otherwise unable to give birth</div> <bR> <div> 2. often, agents of evil are sent to kill the child before his/her purpose can be</div> <div> fulfilled, but God/the gods find a way to protect the child</div> <bR> <div> 3. the child is often trained by a wise mentor, who may have been a special child</div> <div> himself, conceived for this very purpose</div> <bR> <div> 4. once reaching a certain stage of development, the special child is tested and</div> <div> proves his/her worth</div> <bR> <div> 5. the test often leads to the manifestation of the purpose; those who believed</div> <div> in the child are rewarded, those who opposed are punished</div> <bR> <bR> <div> Some Special Children:</div> <bR> <div> Judeo/Christian: Isaac, Moses, Samson, Samuel, David, Jesus</div> <bR> <div> Egyptian: Osiris, Horus, etc.</div> <bR> <div> Greek: Zeus, Oedipus, Jason, etc.</div> <bR> <div> Celtic: Merlin, Arthur, etc.</div> <bR> <div> Hindu: Krishna, etc.</div> <bR> <div> <I>There is hardly a belief system that doesn't owe something to the concept of the special child.</I></div> <bR> <div>                        4. <B>Myths of Birth and Rebirth</B></div> <div> a. tell how life can be renewed, reversed, or transmigrated</div> <div> b. can relate the coming of an ideal society</div> <div> c. can tell of the coming of a savior(s), often the Special Child</div> <div> d. can be connected with End of the World tales</div> <bR> <div>                        5. <B>Eschatological Myths</B></div> <div>                       Myths that tell of the End of the World (or the <U>E</U>nd <U>o</U>f <U>t</U>he <U>W</U>orld <U>a</U>s <U>W</U>e <U>K</U>now <U>I</U>t)</div> <bR> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>Superstition</B></div> <bR> <div> Can be difficult to define; is often called an "irrational belief or practice," but who gets to decide what's rational?</div> <bR> <div> Superstitions often develop from mistaken <U>cause-effect</U> connections; <I>e.g.,</I> "If I ate ice cream before I passed the last math test, I'll pass any math test I take in the future provided I have ice cream before taking it!"</div> <bR> <div> Compton's Encyclopedia: "One person's religion is another's superstition."</div> <bR> <div> <B>Common Cultural Superstitions</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>Friday the 13th</I></div> <bR> <div> The Bible features the numbers 7, 12, and 40.  The number 12, representing completeness, is considered to be especially sacred (12 tribes of Israel, 12 Apostles, etc.).  The next number, 13, is seen as <I>adding to God's purpose</I> and is thus evil.</div> <div>     </div> <div> Friday is unlucky because it's the day Jesus died.</div> <bR> <div> Alternatively: Norse myth--the god Loki (god of mischief) arrived uninvited at a party of the gods.  He was the thirteenth guest.  The god honored at the party died.  It happened on a Friday.</div> <bR> <div> The fear of the number 13 is called <I>tridecaphobia</I>.</div> <bR> <div> <I>The Black Cat Crossing Your Path</I></div> <bR> <div> Egyptian origins--Cats were sacred, white representing good, black bad.</div> <bR> <div> Middle Ages/Christian: witches were said to either change into black cats, or were said to be advised by demons in black-cat form (<I>familiars</I>).  This belief had some disastrous consequences during outbreaks of Bubonic Plague.</div> <bR> <div> If a black cat crosses your path: take 12 steps backward.  <I>What if you're in a car?</I> Run him over! (Must I tell you <I>everything?</I>).</div> <bR> <div> <I>Lucky Rabbit's Foot</I></div> <bR> <div> Middle Ages/Christian--witches and/or familiars could transform into <I>hares</I> to outrun those pursuing them.  While in hare form, witches would supposedly feed on the milk from nursing mothers at night.  Carrying a severed foot reminded the witches that they could be caught and killed.  Eventually, this morphed into a symbol of good luck.</div> <bR> <div> For those of you who carry a rabbit's foot: Remember--it didn't do the <I>rabbit</I> any good, and he had <U>four</U> of them.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Knocking On Wood</I></div> <bR> <div> Celtic (Irish) origin--trees represented the divine.  Druid priests celebrated their rituals in the woods because trees had the power to suck evil spirits into the ground and trap them in their roots.</div> <bR> <div> Evil spirits, being evil, would eavesdrop on conversations and would attempt to steal good luck from humans.  Tapping on a tree reminded any spirits close by that they were in danger of being sucked into the ground.  Supposedly, this would scare the bad guys off.</div> <bR> <div> Eventually, the practice evolved into knocking on any type of wood.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Throwing Salt Over the Shoulder</I></div> <bR> <div> Roman and other origins - Salt was, of course, very valuable in the ancient world as it preserved meat and made it taste better.  Roman soldiers actually received part of their pay in salt (some say this is the origin of the phrase, "He isn't worth his salt," though that may be a legend).</div> <bR> <div> Spilling salt was thought to be bad luck.  Once Christianity entered Rome to stay, it was thought that the Devil crouched over your left shoulder, intending to bring you bad luck.  Tossing salt over that shoulder blinded him long enough for good luck to return.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Walking Under a Ladder</I></div> <bR> <div> <I>Mystical/Christian</I> - A ladder against a wall forms a triangle, which was often a symbol of the Holy Trinity (the Christian concept of Three Persons in One God--the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost--later, the Holy Spirit).  To pass through the Trinity symbol was considered to be evil.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Practical</I> - Ladders were used to scale castle walls during battle.  Various painful counter-tactics were developed, including the pouring of boiling oil on invaders.  Beling around a ladder at such times would cause painful death.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Breaking A Mirror</I></div> <bR> <div> The ancients believed that a mirror reflection could trap your soul (later, with the development of photography, pictures were thought to have the same power).  Breaking a mirror was then akin to breaking your soul--and that meant trouble.</div> <bR> <div> To ward off evil, you had to a) wash the pieces in a river flowing south; or b) bury the pieces in the earth forever.</div> <bR> <div> Mirrors were often covered at night so your soul wouldn't be trapped while you slept.  Mirrors owned by those newly dead were covered so their souls could travel to the next world unimpeded.</div> <bR> <div> Most famous "mirror" punishment--<I>Narcisis</I>.  The Greeks believed he was doomed to love his own reflection in the water forever.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Bless-You On the Sneeze</I></div> <bR> <div> Several origins, including Roman….</div> <bR> <div> A sneeze propels your soul into the world--a quick "bless you" sends it back.</div> <div> The heart stops on a sneeze--a quick God Bless You starts it again.</div> <div> During the Bubonic Plague (c. 1348), a sneeze was a sign of coming death.  Thus it was law to bless the sneezer as he/she was likely to be dead soon.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Four-Leaf Clover</I></div> <bR> <div> Irish - The Three-Leaf clover was a symbol of the Trinity.</div> <bR> <div> A four-leaf clover supposedly grew in the Garden of Eden.  When Adam and Eve were kicked out, Eve supposedly plucked one as a reminder of the beautiful life they were leaving behind.  To find one now is to find a link to the Garden, and is thought to be good luck (though none of this appears in Genesis).</div> <bR> <div> <I>There are, of course, many other superstitions--many tied to marriage and childbirth.</I></div> <bR> <div> <I>                                                                         *   *   *</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>Nostradamus</B></div> <bR> <div> <I><B>THE LIFE</B></I></div> <bR> <div> Born Michel de Notredame (Michael of Notredame) Dec. 14, 1503; parents were Jews who had converted to Christianity.</div> <bR> <div> 1525 - Obtains medical degree, becomes wandering healer.  Eventually marries, and has both a son and daughter.</div> <bR> <div> 1538 - wife and children die of plague; practice suffers.  Mother-In-Law sues for return of dowry; Inquisition orders him to appear for making a remark about a statue of the Virgin Mary.  Nostradamus runs, develops interest in astronomy.</div> <bR> <div> 1544 - settles in Salon, marries a rich widow, makes cosmetics for rich people.  His support for the Huguenots (French Protestants) makes him unpopular.</div> <bR> <div> 1550 - issues first prophectic almanacs; no better, no worse than those issued by hundreds of others.</div> <bR> <div> 1555-1557: issues <I>Centuries</I>, the work for which he is still famous</div> <bR> <div> <I>Centuries</I> intrigues King Henry II and Queen Catherine de Medici; they become Nostradamus fans, and protect him from the grumblings of others at court</div> <bR> <div> July 1566 - Nostradamus dies (had predicted his own death for Nov., 1567; oops!)</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>THE WORK</B></I></div> <bR> <div> Almanacs no better than anyone else's; reputation rests on <I>Centuries</I></div> <bR> <div> <I>Centuries </I>supposedly 10 books of 100 verses each, actually only contains 942 verses</div> <bR> <div> Nostradamus described at as his memorial, revealed by the Divine to benefit mankind</div> <bR> <div> Written in Latinized French in four-line verse, <I>Centuries</I> was difficult to understand even in its day; puns, anagrams, made up words, etc., plus <I>translation</I> make it very difficult to know exactly what Nostradamus meant.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Very important:</I> Inquisition looked to burn "seers" like Nostradamus; thus, he made his prophecies disguised to make them vague and obscure.</div> <bR> <div> Also, they're in no particular order….prophecies for Nostradamus' time sit right next to things that are supposed to occur in our time.  <I>Nostradamus rarely used dates</I> (and when he did, they were wrong).</div> <bR> <div> Result?  Followers have better luck applying prophecies to events <I>after the fact</I>--which is, of course, useless.</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>THE HYPE</B></I></div> <bR> <div> Why does Nostradamus still fascinate people?</div> <bR> <div> --King and Queen were supporters in his day</div> <div> --<I>Centuries</I> is still in print (<I>The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus</I>, etc.)</div> <div> --end of the world culture</div> <div> --people love the mysterious, and things written are attractive</div> <bR> <div> BTW</div> <bR> <div> Nostradamus predicts the world will end in……3797 AD.</div> <bR> <div>                                                               *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>Egyptian Mythology</B></div> <bR> <div> Egypt is a society with written records dating back 5000 years.</div> <bR> <div> Their religion was a dominating force in their lives, and many things they believed have morphed their way into our culture today.</div> <bR> <div> Egyptians were not death-obsessed; rather, they loved life and wished it to continue</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE GODS</B></div> <bR> <div> Very human--ate, drank, emotional, sexual; lived, died hunted, went into battle, etc.</div> <bR> <div> Territorial - gods held sway over one area ("local"); gained/lost favor depending upon where the Pharaoh (King) chose his capital</div> <bR> <div> Characteristics of certain gods merged over the years</div> <bR> <div> Names very mystical; to know a name was to have power over another.  Each god had five names, associated with the elements (air, fire, water, earth, + name)</div> <bR> <div> <B>MAJOR GODS</B></div> <bR> <div> Horus - royal god, special child, looked like a falcon with the sun and moon as eyes</div> <bR> <div> Isis - mother of Horus, sister/wife of Osiris; later incarnation as a Roman goddess</div> <bR> <div> Osiris - God/Judge of the dead; son Horus considered to be his revenger/rejuvenation; symbol of eternal life</div> <bR> <div> Ra (or Re) - sun god of Heliopolis, often credited with creation; later merged with Atum; the supreme diety</div> <bR> <div> Set/Seth - god of the desert, storms, and evil; very powerful</div> <bR> <div> Thoth - god of sacred writings and wisdom</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE PHARAOH AS GOD</B></div> <bR> <div> Kings formed a bridge between the people and the gods</div> <bR> <div> <I>Important</I>: If a pharaoh was remembered by the gods, then all people who lived under his rule would be remembered as well.</div> <bR> <div> Early dynastic kings were considered to be gods; later kings needed to go through a ceremony conducted by the priests of his chosen god.</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE PRIESTS</B></div> <bR> <div> Each god had its own priesthood (which, obviously, varied in size)</div> <bR> <div> Priests:</div> <bR> <div> --kept track of and read sacred scrolls</div> <div> --performed rituals (perhaps most importantly, death rituals)</div> <div> --kept track of the foodstuffs</div> <div> --led the people in worship</div> <div> --were in charge of the temples</div> <div> --led the people in public worship</div> <bR> <div> Also:</div> <bR> <div> --were rarely seen by the people (offered advice in temples through "priest holes")</div> <div> --performed the ceremony that made a pharaoh a god</div> <bR> <div> <I>While most priests were honest and performed their duties with honor, some were involved in the robbing of the graves of the pharaohs</I>.</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE PEOPLE</B></div> <bR> <div> In general, most ancient Egyptians were devout believers, and life revolved around religious belief/daily worship.</div> <bR> <div> Characteristics:</div> <bR> <div> --strong sense of justice</div> <div> --hated adultery, stealing, lying</div> <div> --were almost obsessively clean (males shaved all body hair, etc.)</div> <div> --believed in magic; amulets/charms were worn to ward off evil;</div> <div>    magic used to treat snakebite, sickness, injury</div> <div> --strong belief in the afterlife; the seen and the unseen mixed easily in their worldview</div> <div> --everything in life was thought to have meaning; nothing happened by chance (fatalist</div> <div>    view)</div> <div> --participated in very involved death rituals</div> <bR> <div> <B>MAKING A MUMMY</B></div> <bR> <div> The ancient Egyptians believed your body and face must be preserved in death in order for you to be recognized by the gods on the other side and granted your reward.  In order to understand why, you have to understand the things that happen to the body in death if left untreated (what follows is gruesome; be prepared).</div> <bR> <div> <I><B>What Happens At Death</B></I> (from THE ODD INDEX by Stephen J. Spinesi)</div> <bR> <div> <I>The Moment of Death</I></div> <bR> <div> --heart stops</div> <div> --skin gets tight and ashy</div> <div> --muscles relax</div> <div> --bladder and bowels empty</div> <div> --body temp begin to drop 1 degree per hour</div> <bR> <div> <I>30 Minutes</I></div> <bR> <div> --skin gets purple and waxy</div> <div> --lips, fingernails, toenails fade to a pale color</div> <div> --blood pools</div> <div> --hands and feet turn blue</div> <div> --eyes sink into skull</div> <bR> <div> <I>4 Hours</I></div> <bR> <div> --rigor mortis sets in and continues for 24 hours</div> <bR> <div> <I>12 Hours</I></div> <bR> <div> --body in full rigor mortis</div> <bR> <div> <I>24 Hours</I></div> <bR> <div> --body same temp as environment</div> <div> --semen dies (males)</div> <div> --head and neck a greenish blue; spreads</div> <div> --smell of rotting meat</div> <div> --face virtually unrecognizable</div> <bR> <div> <I>3 Days</I></div> <bR> <div> --skin blisters</div> <div> --body bloats and swells (gasses)</div> <div> --fluids leak from nose, mouth, vagine, rectum</div> <bR> <div> <I>3 Weeks</I></div> <bR> <div> --skin, hair, nails can be pulled off</div> <div> --skin bursts in many places</div> <div> --decomposition (rot to bones) takes a month or two</div> <bR> <div> <I>No wonder societies attempt to preserve the body for our death rituals.  For comparison, here's how embalming happens today.</I></div> <bR> <div> --body undressed</div> <div> --limbs stretched and massaged to ease rigor mortis</div> <div> --body washed</div> <div> --artery in neck and vein in neck, armpit, and groin opened; blood drained in table gutters</div> <div> --veins filled with embalming fluid (which by coincidence looks like blood)</div> <div> --syringe stuck in naval, stomach pumped out; 8-10 pints embalming fluid poured in</div> <div> --cups/pads put over eyeballs, eyelids sewn shut; mouth/cheeks stuffed with cotton,</div> <div>    lips sewn shut; reconstructive work done if necessary</div> <div> --hair washed, beard shaven; make-up applied to face and hands</div> <div> --body dressed (family provides, or paper suits are provided by the funeral parlor)</div> <div> --body placed in coffin, hands arranged, etc.</div> <bR> <div> <I>When the Egyptians made a mummy, they did many of the same things.</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>MAKING A MUMMY</B></div> <bR> <div> The Egyptians believed each of us contained three parts:</div> <bR> <div> --<I>akh</I>: the body of the dead which travels to the underworld; immortal and unchanging</div> <div> --<I>ba</I>: personality or character, released at death, symbolized by a human-headed bird</div> <div> --<I>ka</I>: your exact double created at birth by the god Khnum, released at death and</div> <div>         symbolized by upraised arms.</div> <bR> <div> <I>At death, the ba and ka met in the next world, and you became the akh to exist among the gods.</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>MUMMIFICATION</B></div> <bR> <div> The death ritual was supposed to be a re-enactment of the death of Osiris, who was resurrected by his sister/wife Isis; therefore, the body must be preserved.</div> <bR> <div> To begin with, Osiris was not a feared god; he was the means to eternal life and, as such, had to be pacified.</div> <bR> <div> Burial was a 70-day ritual.  It was meant to be degrading to signify the suffering of Osiris.</div> <bR> <div> --dead referred to be the use of Osiris' name (e.g., Osiris Dave)</div> <div> --body taken to place of purification</div> <div> --body washed with Nile water</div> <div> --liver, lungs, stomach, intestines removed, placed in canopic jars</div> <div> --brain scrambled and drained through nostrils</div> <bR> <div> --holes filled with balls of linen to preserve facial features (otherwise, personality would</div> <div>      disappear)</div> <div> --heart left in (considered to be the seat of intelligence); body soaked in oils, salt, resin</div> <div> --amulets placed on body (scarab, etc) over heart</div> <div> --body wrapped in linen bandages, placed in coffin (sarcophagus) </div> <bR> <div> <B>BURIAL</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>The embalmers represented the gods who helped Isis embalm Osiris</I>.</div> <bR> <div> --female mourners to represent Isis and Nephtys who mourned Osiris</div> <div> --procession (march; coffin in boat pulled by oxen)</div> <div> --canopic jars, then professional mourners</div> <div> --priests</div> <div> --servants, carrying everything needed for life in the next world (contrary to popular</div> <div>    belief, servants were not killed for "use" in later life; rather, clay models were</div> <div>    created)</div> <div> --burial on the western bank of the Nile</div> <div> --dancers and musicians at the tomb</div> <div> --mummy raised, opening of the mouth ceremony (symbolic of Horus going to Osiris</div> <div>    to announce his victory over Set)</div> <div> --male: a mummified phallus was appended; soul now considered to be reborn or</div> <div>    resurrected</div> <div> --mummy placed in sarcophagus for preservation; <I>The Book of the Dead</I> placed in</div> <div>    your hands for help in The Hall of Judgment</div> <bR> <div> <I>You were on your own now….</I></div> <bR> <div> <B>WHAT HAPPENED AFTER DEATH</B></div> <bR> <div> You were going to meet Osiris, the Judge of the Dead, a god you'd heard about your entire life.  You'd have to convince him you were worthy of the afterlife by proving your righteousness.</div> <bR> <div> Osiris sits on a throne in the Hall of Judgment (AKA The Hall of Two Truths) high up a flight of steps, representing the hill where Ra began creation.</div> <bR> <div> Osiris is assisted by Isis, Nephtys, their sons, and 42 other judges (representing the provinces of upper and lower Egypt); 9 are considered to be "great judges," including Ra</div> <bR> <div> <I>THE PROCESS</I></div> <bR> <div> The passage to the hall was terrifying--whatever scared you the most in life is what you'd face.</div> <bR> <div> --amulets and The Book of the Dead there to help</div> <div> You would then be brought in front of the judges for a hearing.</div> <bR> <div> --negative confession: dead claimed to be sin-free (it was possible to trick the gods)</div> <div> --weighing of the heart: Thoth weighed your heart on a scale opposite and ostrich feather;</div> <div>    heart = feather = afterlife (the 9 great judges confirm) = entry into heaven; dressed like</div> <div>    Osiris, announced entry to the gods, and assigned meaningful work (which you could</div> <div>    Buy subs for)</div> <div>    Heart heavier = horror; you'd be thrown to the monster Amemait the Devourer (part</div> <div>    Lion, part hippo, part croc) where you'd be eaten forever</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE MUMMY'S CURSE</B></div> <bR> <div> Not Egyptian belief; Arab (based on African Rites)</div> <bR> <div> Early Arab writings feature resurrected mummies hunting down those who robbed their tombs.</div> <bR> <div> Famous <I>Curse of King Tut</I> (c. 1922) a fabrication invented by a journalist who needed to file a story by his deadline.</div> <bR> <div>                                                                     *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>HALLOWE'EN</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>The Celtic New Year festival</I> (and celebration of Samhain, the Lord of the Dead…..)</div> <bR> <div> HUNDREDS OF YEARS, BC</div> <bR> <div>      The Celts inhabited the area now known as Ireland (lands the Romans referred to, in part, as <U>Goth</U>).  The Festival of Samhain took place on the equivalent of our October 31 (on the Gregorian calendar).  The Celtic festival was lead by the Celtic priesthood known as the Druids.</div> <bR> <div> THE DRUIDS</div> <bR> <div>      <I>Druid</I>, roughly translated, means <I>tree worshipper</I>.  Trees were symbols of ancient power and were spiritual icons.  It was thought trees could trap evil spirits, for example (see SUPERSTITIONS and the later JACK O' THE LANTERN story).</div> <div>      The Druids were honored and protected by Celtic society.  Drawing a blade in the presence of a Druid could be punishable by death.  In return, they, of course, were expected to protect the average Celts from spiritual dangers.</div> <div>      The Druids worshipped the four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire.  They carried a willow or oak wand (also a phallic symbol for the sake of fertility) to symbolize air; they used a chalice made of silver, filled with seashells, to symbolize the sea; a golden sickle represented fire; and the earth (called <I>Gaia</I>, the womb and the tomb) was represented by a disk-shaped holy stone on which was carved the name of the True God, whose name was so sacred, it could not be pronounced; to do so would invite the wrath of nature (the name is represented by the <I>Awen</I>, three slanted lines thought to be derived from the rays of the sun).</div> <div>      Average Celts worshipped the god associated with the prevailing element at the time of their birth.  The winter symbolized the earth, so those born during winter worshipped the earth goddess.  The spring was associated with water, the summer with air, the fall with fire (thus, the bonfires); the main god you worshipped, then, varied according to your birthday.  </div> <div>      The Druids were exempt from this, worshipping the True God; it was believed all things were made of his energy, that all life was due to him, and that all other gods simply channeled his power.  All Druid priests took the vow of chastity and of vegetarianism.  They distributed the mystical plant mistletoe.  </div> <div>      People who died were thought to go through a flaming door to the Seas of Anwyn.  A basically good soul would be cleansed by the fire; a bad soul would be consumed by it.  Some souls escaped the flaming door by hiding.</div> <div>      Much of Druid practice remains a mystery, since they had no written language (later Druids spoke Latin).  Some mystic runes, such as the Wheel of Gods, still exist (it's thought that the wheel served as a calendar).  Many of the Druid rituals and beliefs make up the basis of what is called New Age religion today.</div> <bR> <div> THE FESTIVAL OF SAMHAIN</div> <bR> <div>      <I>Samhain</I> was the Lord of the Dead.  His festival was used to mark the Celtic New Year, and also to mark the end of the harvest season (<I>i.e.</I>, the Death of the Sun).  For the next several months, the Celts expected darkness to prevail, and they thought that it was only through their rituals that the Sun would again return (rebirth) and that their crops would grow.  Bonfires were common, both in celebration of the fall, and to guide good spirits.  Marriages often took place around the festival time.</div> <div>      It was also believed that, during the festival, the dead could return.</div> <bR> <div> FRIGHTENING, BUT EXCITING</div> <bR> <div>      Supposedly, the festival acted as a gateway between the world of the living and the world of the dead.  The belief was that Samhain would hunt the land with the Druid priests, attempting to chase the misguided souls back to the other side.  He would scare and trick the souls if necessary.  Meanwhile, the souls he couldn't catch were thought to be able to possess the body of the living--and send <I>that</I> soul (unfairly)--to the underworld.  The older you were, the more likely you were to be possessed.  Druid priests attempting to avoid possession themselves would trump death by offering their own souls to get a place of honor.</div> <div>      During that night, it was believed dead relatives could visit their living kin.  Turnips were carved hollow (with candles) to guide them (these also represented the season--the fire coming from the womb of the earth).  It was also believed that the power of the Devil, the Lord of Darkness, could be harnessed to tell your future (<I>e.g</I>., nuts roasted in Samhain fires would break open, and the pattern would indicate whom you would marry).  Bobbing for apples was thought to show who would have a good year ahead.</div> <div>      Younger Druids defied the forces of nature by doing a 10-mile hike, challenging them to stop him.  If he made the journey by the break of day (he would have to prove he hadn't skipped any of the journey by gathering small foods along the way), he could claim the region as safe from evil spirits.  If he wasn't successful, he would have to sacrifice his most favored possession.</div> <bR> <div> <I>A NOTE ON SACRIFICES</I></div> <bR> <div>      Sacrifices are common throughout ancient history, from before Moses to recent times (<I>e.g.,</I> gifts on holidays).  It was believed that the gods respected quality, so the best of the best of your animals, fruits, <I>etc</I>., were put aside for sacrifice.</div> <div>       Human sacrifice, of course, represented the ultimate gift--and virgins (the purest) represented the best of the best.  The scant details on Druid human sacrifices are so steeped in morbid legend that most historians doubt it occurred with any regularity, if at all.</div> <bR> <div> TRICK OR TREAT</div> <bR> <div>      With spirits out simply to possess people mixing with spirits seeking to visit family, no one knew what exactly to expect on that night.  It was widely believed that evil spirits would attempt to trick the living.  To appease these spirits, food would be left for them (a treat might prevent an evil trick).  Druid rituals on this night involved talking to spirits.  To do so, they made a blue-fire globe--a special candleholder painted with dyes to create almost a "black light" effect.  These were suspended on dark cords in the night, making only the lights visible--eerie to look at, no doubt.</div> <bR> <div> THE FESTIVAL MORPHS</div> <bR> <div>      Over the years, traditions developed wherein the people would dress in costumes to either frighten the spirits or walk among them so as to avoid possession (putting on masks has also been a traditional way to get in touch with the supernatural).  Groups of these masqueraders would wander from hut to hut, demanding a treat in exchange for the lack of a trick.</div> <bR> <div> ALL HALLOW'S EVE</div> <bR> <div>      With the coming of Christianity to the area (with the Romans), the pre-Christian pagan celebrations were outlawed, so the festival went underground (<I>e.g.</I>, it was more common for children than adults to dress up).  Druid worship centers were stamped out and their rituals forbidden, but the festival never really stopped.</div> <div>      Eventually, as it did with most pagan celebrations, the Church reached a compromise: it simply morphed the Celtic festival into a Christian one.  How?</div> <div>      Instead of a festival to the Lord of the Dead, the Church called it a festival to the Lord of Life (in Church teaching, Christ).  Instead of expecting the souls of the dead to wander, the Church emphasized the saints (the "hallowed ones") and the souls of those in Purgatory (those who need to be purged of their sins, much like those crossing through the fiery gateway above).  Basically, the Church was saying, "Okay, if you <U>have</U> to have a holiday to celebrate the dead, then at least celebrate those who are with the Lord now (saints), or those who <U>will</U> be (those in Purgatory)."</div> <div>       So, November 1 became "All Saint's Day" (AKA "All Hallow's Day," followed by "All Soul's Day" on Nov. 2), and the evening before (October 31) became "All Hallow's Eve" (which is eventually slurred into <I>Hallowe'en</I>).</div> <div>       This is first celebrated on May 13, 609.</div> <bR> <div> THE MIDDLE AGES</div> <bR> <div>      Additional symbols, thought to represent witchcraft (cats, pointed hats, etc.) became associated with the practice of Hallowe'en rituals.  Later, after the Protestant Revolution (from the word <I>protest, c. </I>1521), the entire festival was banned as being a corruption of Christianity by demonic forces.</div> <bR> <div> HALLOWE'EN IN THE USA</div> <bR> <div>      Certain colonies founded by Puritans (from <I>purify</I>) looked upon all pagan-influenced festivals (Christmas, Easter, <I>etc</I>.) as evil.  Many of these feelings lasted even after the American Revolution.</div> <div>      The wave of Irish immigration in the 1840s (thanks to the potato famine) brought Hallowe'en to the US.  As with all things Irish, it was resented.  At first prejudiced against, the Irish suffered from high levels of incarceration and illiteracy.  When the Irish community began to band together, creating schools, childcare, and societies, their crime rates fell and they began to enter service employment (police, fire, <I>etc</I>.).  Eventually, along with other Irish customs, Hallowe'en was assimilated.  It was at this time that pumpkins were substituted for turnips, and the Jack O'Lantern was born.</div> <bR> <div> THE LEGEND OF JACK O' THE LANTERN (c. 1750)</div> <bR> <div>      Jack, an Irish blacksmith, was drinking too much in a pub when he met the Devil on Hallowe'en.  In exchange for one last drink, Jack promised the Devil his soul.  When the Devil changed himself into a coin to pay, Jack bagged him with a cross so the evil one couldn't change back.  In exchange for letting him out, the Devil said he wouldn't collect Jack's soul for 10 years.</div> <div>      Ten years later, the Devil--intending to collect--met Jack on the road.  Requesting one last apple, Jack trapped the Devil in a tree by carving a cross on the trunk (<I>a throwback to the Druids?</I>).  Jack skipped away happily, knowing the Devil could never take his soul now.</div> <div>      Years later, Jack died, but, because of his drinking, his tricking, and his miserly ways, was turned away from Heaven.  He was also turned away from Hell because the Devil couldn't take his soul.  He was ordered back to Earth.  In order to find his way, the Devil gave him an ember of fire from Hell.  This Jack put in a hollowed-out turnip.</div> <div>      Ever since, Jack his been doomed to wander in the darkness alone, his name synonymous with a damned soul.</div> <bR> <div>                                                            *     *     *</div> <bR> <div> <B>Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" > (1/10/1869 - 12/16/1916)</FONT></div> <bR> <div> <I>The Russian "Mad Monk," who supposedly had the power to heal…..</I></div> <bR> <div> "Without Rasputin, there could have been no Lenin." -- Alexander Kerensky</div> <bR> <div> Born in Tobolsk, Siberia; as a child, credited with seeing visions and foretelling the future (one very famous story has him identifying the man who stole his neighbor's horse).</div> <bR> <div> As a young man, supposedly saw a vision (either the Virgin Mary or an angel he called Astra); tried to study for the Russian Orthodox priesthood.  Eventually, gives up the seminary thanks to a weakness for women and booze.</div> <bR> <div> Marries and has several children (including Maria, later a lion-tamer in the US); becomes a wandering Holy Man (<I>starets</I>), but establishes a home in Pokrovskoe, Siberia.  Causes much gossip by bathing with young women in public bathhouses there.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Rasputin's Religion</I>: Rasputin was never officially ordained as anything.  Nor was he actually a monk.  He seemed to be a Russian Orthodox Catholic of the New Believer persuasion.  He was often accused of being a <I>Klysty</I>.  The Klysty were a group who believed you had to sin in order to experience the fullness of God's forgiveness (orgies, etc.).  Rasputin did espouse this philosophy, though no proof exists that he was ever a member of the Klysty cult.</div> <bR> <div> Initially, Rasputin was accepted by Orthodox leaders (peasants, in their simplicity, were thought to be closer to God, and mystic elements fascinated the Russian upper-classes, paving the way for starets like Rasputin).</div> <bR> <div> Rasputin was introduced to the Russian Empress Alexandra by her cousin (c. 1905), and he proves to be the only one capable of helping her hemophiliac son (Alexis, heir to the throne).  This puts the Empress and her husband, Czar Nicholas II, in his debt.  But Rasputin's rowdy behavior causes much embaraasment (drinking, womanizing, exhibitionism; the Czar's secret police confirm Rasputin is a party animal).</div> <bR> <div> As a result, Rasputin makes enemies in the government, especially Prime Minister Stolypin.  Rasputin uses his influence to contain his enemies.</div> <bR> <div> WW1 breaks out, the Czar goes to the front.  This leaves Rasputin in charge, where he survives an attempt on his life by a scorned lover and a fistfight with the Bishop.  Several Communist groups begin to make gains.  Nobles plot: Rasputin must die.</div> <bR> <div> The Empress's cousin, Prince Felix Yussopov, engineers the famous Dec. 16, 1916 plot, the account of which is legendary (but how much of it is <I>true</I>?).  What is indisputable is that Rasputin, age 47, was killed that night.</div> <bR> <div> The Source of His Power: Hypnotism?  God?  The Devil?  Physiological reasons?  Your choice….</div> <bR> <div>                                                                         *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>Vlad Tepes (Vlad the Impaler), the Historical Dracula</B></div> <bR> <div>      Almost everybody has heard of Count Dracula.  Through movies starring Max Schreck, Bela Lugosi, Christopher, Lee or Gary Oldman, in books (the recent Vampire Chronicles of Anne Rice among them), or even in bedtime stories told to us in our childhood, we all have an idea of who or what the Count is.</div> <div>      On the other hand, Vlad Tepes Dracula--the historical figure who inspired Bram Stoker's character--is definitely less known.  Our study of mythology gives us a good reason to dive back into the life of this Machiavellian fifteenth century leader.</div> <bR> <div> <B>BIRTH AND EARLY YEARS</B></div> <bR> <div>      Vlad Tepes was born in November or December 1431, in the fortress of Sighisoara, Romania.  He had an older illegitimate brother Mircea and a younger brother Radu.  His father Vlad Dracul (the appointed military governor of Transylvania) had been inducted into the Order of the Dragon the year before. The order was a military and religious society, originally created in 1387 by the Holy Roman Emperor.  The goal of the Order was to protect the interests of Eastern Orthodox Catholicism and to crusade against the Turks (who practiced Islam).</div> <div>      There are different reasons why this society is important to our discussion.  First, it provides an explanation for the name "Dracula."  <I>Dracul</I> in Romanian means <I>dragon</I>, and those who knew of his father's induction called him <I>Dracul</I>.  <I>Dracula </I>(a diminutive, which means "son of the dragon") was the surname ultimately used by Vlad Tepes.  Second, the Order adopted as its official dress a black cape over a red garment, to be worn only on Fridays or during the commemoration of Christ's Passion--the inspiration for Dracula's cape, no doubt.</div> <div>      In the winter of 1436-1437, Dracul became prince of Wallachia (one of the three Romanian provinces, and a strategic border state coveted by the Ottoman Turks), and took up residence at the capital at Tirgoviste.  Vlad Tepes lived six years with his father at the princely court. In 1442, for political reasons, the Sultan Murad II had Dracula and his younger brother Radu taken hostage.  Dracula was held in Turkey until 1448, while his brother Radu decided to stay there until 1462. This captivity certainly played an important role in Dracula's childhood, and he adopted a very pessimistic view of life.</div> <div>      After hearing that Vladislav II had assassinated his father, Vlad managed to escape from the Turks.  Upon returning home, he learned that his older brother Mircea had been tortured and buried alive by the <I>boyars</I> (noblemen) of his own country. </div> <div>      Only 17, Vlad Tepes made his first move toward seizing the Wallachian throne. But Vladislav II defeated him only two months later.  However, in July of 1456, Vlad struck again, and had the satisfaction of killing his mortal enemy.  Vlad then began his longest reign (six years), during which he committed many cruelties and established his controversial reputation. </div> <div>      His first major act of revenge was aimed at the <I>boyars</I> of Tirgoviste, who had killed his father and brother. On Easter Sunday (c.1459), he invited all the <I>boyar</I> families who had participated to 'make peace' at a feast. He then had his enemies surrounded, impaling the older ones on stakes.  The others were forced to march from the capital to the town of Poenari. This 50-mile trek was grueling, and the captives were not permitted to rest. Dracula then ordered them to build a fortress on the ruins of an older outpost. Many died in the process, but Dracula succeeded in both creating new nobility and obtaining a fortress for future emergencies. The ruins of the building are known today as Castle Dracula.</div> <bR> <div> <B>DRACULA'S REIGN</B></div> <bR> <div>      Vlad became well known for his brutal punishments.  He often had enemies skinned, boiled, decapitated, blinded, strangled, hanged, burned, roasted, hacked, nailed, buried alive, stabbed, and worse.  He also liked to cut off noses, ears, genitalia, and limbs. But his favorite method was impalement on stakes; hence the surname "Tepes" (which means "The Impaler").  Even the Turks referred to him as "Kaziglu Bey," meaning "The Impaler Prince." It is this technique he used in 1457, 1459 and 1460 against Germanic Transylvanian merchants who ignored his trade laws. He believed the raids he led against these transgressors were acts of nationalism in order to protect Wallachian commerce; to those he attacked, however, it was a reign of terror, wherein men, women, and children were butchered and impaled.  It is the German tales that have survived--and that have branded Vlad with the reputation he enjoys (?) today (they were printed and distributed as pamphlets during Vlad's lifetime, and actually became early bestsellers!).</div> <div>      There are many stories about the cruelty of Vlad Tepes Dracula. He was known for his fierce insistence on honesty and order. Almost any crime--from lying and stealing to killing--could be punished by impalement.  Because he was so confident in the effectiveness of his rule, Dracula supposedly placed a golden cup on display in the central square of Tirgoviste.  Thirsty travelers could use the cup, but Dracula had forbidden anyone from taking it. According to the available historic sources, the cup remained entirely unmolested throughout Vlad's reign.</div> <div>      Another famous story concerns his reception of Turkish ambassadors.  Supposedly, they refused to remove their turbans in his presence--"The custom of our country, my lord," they explained.  "I, too, wish to strengthen your law," Vlad replied….whereupon he had the ambassadors' turbans nailed to their heads.  "Tell your master," Vlad said, "[to keep his customs] in <I>his</I> land."</div> <div>      Dracula was also very concerned that all his subjects worked and were productive. He looked upon the poor as beggars and thieves.  He once invited all the poor and the sick to his court in Tirgoviste for a great feast. After the guests ate and drank, Dracula ordered the hall boarded up and set on fire. No one survived (it should be noted that invitations from Dracula should be courteously declined). </div> <bR> <div> <B>THE WAR AGAINST THE TURKS</B></div> <bR> <div>      Early in 1462, Vlad launched a campaign against the Turks along the Danube River. It was risky, since the military force of Sultan Mehmed II was by far more powerful than the Wallachian army.  Still, during the winter of 1462, Vlad managed to gain many victories. To punish him, the Sultan decided to launch a full-scale invasion of Wallachia (his other goal was to transform this land into a Turkish province).  He entered Wallachia with an army three times larger than Dracula's.  Finding himself without allies, Vlad was forced to retreat towards Tirgoviste.  He burned his own villages and poisoned the wells along the way, so that the Turkish army would find nothing to eat or drink.</div> <div>      When the exhausted Turks finally reached the capital city, they were confronted by a gruesome sight that staggered even the most fearless among them: thousands of stakes holding the remaining carcasses of some 20,000 Turkish captives (a horrific scene ultimately nicknamed the "Forest of the Impaled"). This terror tactic, deliberately staged by Dracula, was definitely successful: the Sultan, tired and hungry, admitted defeat (though he planned to fight another day).  Vlad was hailed as a hero, and still enjoys the reputation as a great patriot in Romania.</div> <div>      Following his retreat, Mehmed left the battle to Vlad's younger brother Radu, the Turkish choice for the Wallachian throne.  Joined by Vlad's detractors, Radu and the Turkish army pursued his brother to Poenari castle on the Arges River.  According to legend, Dracula's wife--in order to escape Turkish capture--committed suicide by hurling herself from the upper battlements, her body falling down the precipice into the river below.  Vlad, not the kind of man to even consider suicide, managed to escape the siege of his fortress by using a secret passage into the mountain.</div> <div>      Helped by some peasants from the Arefu village, he was able to reach Transylvania, where he met the new king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus.  Instead of helping, Matthias arrested Dracula and imprisoned him at the Hungarian capital of Visegrad.  In 1475, when he was 44 (following Radu's death), Vlad agreed to subject himself to Hungarian rule, married a Hungarian princess, became a Roman Catholic, and was set free.</div> <div>      His third reign was very short.  Never popular with the nobles, he was attacked after the foreign armies withdrew and was--ironically--impaled on a lance and decapitated in December 1476.  The Sultan displayed his head on the palace roof, while his body was buried secretly.  Many legends developed about Vlad following his death, none of them true.</div> <bR> <div> <B>VLAD AND THE VAMPIRE DRACULA</B></div> <div>  </div> <div>      No one is sure exactly why Bram Stoker chose this fifteenth century Romanian prince as a model for his fictional Dracula. Some scholars have said that Stoker had a friendly relationship with a Hungarian professor from the University of Budapest, and it is likely that this is where Stoker got information about Vlad Tepes.  The only real link between the historical Dracula and the modern literary myth of the vampire is in fact the 1897 novel; Stoker, who called his character <I>Voivode Dracula</I>, made use of folkloric sources, historic references, and some of his own life experiences to create his composite creature (it is worth mentioning that Vlad Dracula's political detractors--mainly German Saxons--made use of the other meaning of the Romanian word "Dracul" (<I>devil</I>) in order to blacken the prince's reputation--an opinion the Turks no doubt shared.  Could the association of the words "dragon" and "devil" in Romanian language explain an earlier link between Vlad Tepes and vampirism?).</div> <div>      In 1992, Francis Ford Coppola forever cemented Vlad and the vampire Dracula by combing their stories in the unfortunately-titled <I><U>Bram Stoker's Dracula</U></I> (in 1993, Coppola and Columbia Pictures were sued by Vlad's last remaining relative, who claimed that the film libeled Vlad's reputation.  The suit was later dropped).</div> <div>      Today, Romanian "Dracula Tours" are very popular, including the most important historical places related with Vlad Tepes (the town of Sighisoara; the Snagov Monastery, where--according to legend--Vlad is buried; Castle Bran, which has been erroneously described by officials of the Romanian Tourist Ministry as Castle Dracula; the Poenari fortress; the village of Arefu, <I>etc</I>.)  Tours also cover the folklore of the fictional Dracula. </div> <bR> <div>                                                              *   *   *</div> <div> <B>2nd Quarter:</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Psychics</B></div> <bR> <div> The term psychic covers a myriad of supernatural phenomena:</div> <bR> <div> --telepathy (mind reading)</div> <div> --extrasensory perception (ESP; "feeling events that occur away from you)</div> <div> --psychic mediums or "channeling" (communication with the dead; often, the medium</div> <div>    is "possessed" by the spirit)</div> <div> --magical/divine healing (miracles)</div> <div> --levitation</div> <div> --fortune telling/prophecy (telling the future)</div> <div> --remote viewing</div> <bR> <div> <I>Common Elements</I>:</div> <bR> <div> --palm reading exploits natural desire to find meaning in patterns)</div> <div> --séances</div> <div> --tarot card/playing card readings</div> <div> --Ouija Boards</div> <div> --I Ching (yarrow sticks)</div> <div> --"hot" readings</div> <div> --"cold" readings</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Art of Psychic Cold Reads</B></div> <bR> <div> Barring actual psychic power, your goal is to convince the subject that you're psychic.  Secondarily, you attempt to draw info out of them.  "Cold Read" means you have no prior info on the subject ("Hot Read" means you <U>have</U> prior info, and the subject doesn't know it).</div> <bR> <div> <I>Try-On Phrases</I> (to get the subject working with you):</div> <bR> <div> "Why do I fell that…..?" (or, "I get the feeling that…..")</div> <div> "Possibly…."</div> <div> "It might mean…."</div> <div> "Why would he/she show me…..?"</div> <bR> <div> <I>Reinforcers</I> (to be used after the subject provides info):</div> <bR> <div> "Yes, I got that very strongly."</div> <div> "I was just going to mention that!</div> <bR> <div> Combinations of these phrases and a little observation (coupled with a healthy dose of controlled blarney) can get you a long way.</div> <bR> <div>                                                               *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>MAJOR WESTERN CULTURAL HOLIDAYS</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>The "Big Four" take place near the Spring and Winter Solstices</I>.</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE BIBLE</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>Many of our most important cultural holidays ("holy days") are routed in Biblical stories/traditions</I>.</div> <bR> <div> IF YOU'RE JEWISH, the Bible is 39 books, arranged in descending order of importance: the Law (<I>Torah</I>), the Prophets, the Writings.  It was originally written on scrolls in Hebrew.</div> <bR> <div> Here you'll find: Adam & Eve, Cain & Abel, the Tower of Babel, Abraham & Isaac, Jacob (aka Israel) and his sons, Job, Joseph, Moses, slavery in Egypt, Passover, Samson & Delilah, Samuel, King Saul, King David, King Solomon, the exile into Babylon, Esther (<I>Purim</I>), the rebuilding of the Temple, Ezekiel's vision of God, Jeremiah and Isaiah's predictions, Jonah & the Whale, etc.</div> <bR> <div> IF YOU'RE PROTESTANT (Christian; from the root word 'Protest'), the Bible is 66 books, divided into two unequal parts: the Old Testament (the Jewish Bible, arranged in a different order), and the New Testament (the story of Jesus and the early church).  Most of these small books were written by (St.) Paul.  Originally, most were written in Common (<I>koine</I>) Greek.</div> <bR> <div> Here you'll find: four gospels (<I>good news</I>) re: the life of Jesus, his birth, mission, death, and resurrection; a history of the early Jesus movement featuring Peter and Paul, stories of the apostles, letters written by them, and the book of Revelation (<I>the Apocalypse</I>) which supposedly details the End of the World.</div> <bR> <div> <I>Note: Certain Christians accept only the 1611 King James Version as the Word of God in English</I>.</div> <bR> <div> IF YOU'RE ROMAN CATHOLIC, the Bible is 78 books.  The 12 additional books were written between the close of the OT and the start of the NT, and cover the history of Judaism before Jesus.  The books are called The Apocrypha (<I>the hidden</I>).  They were written in Greek and Aramaic (an offshoot of Hebrew, and the language of Jesus).</div> <bR> <div> Here you'll find: the Maccabees and Hanukkah, among other things.</div> <bR> <div> IF YOU'RE ORTHODOX (Eastern) CATHOLIC (Russian, Greek, etc.), the Bible is 81 books.  You have three more in the Apocrypha.</div> <bR> <div> <I>We'll look at the Big Four in the order they appear in history.</I></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>PASSOVER</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>The celebration of God leading his Chosen People out of slavery in Egypt, and establishing for them a Promised Land</I>.</div> <bR> <div> The Tale is told in Genesis basically as follows (much abbreviated):</div> <bR> <div> After the Fall of Man (Adam & Eve), generations of humans anger God to the point where he destroys the earth in a flood (Noah and his family survive on the Ark).  Still, the newly populated earth angers God, who is forced to take action from time to time (Sodom and Gomorrah, for example).</div> <bR> <div> Abram (later Abraham) is favored by God; God promises that Abraham will have a child and that God will give his descendents the Promised Land and His favor.  Since Abe is nearly 100, and his wife Sarah 90, prospects for pregnancy seem thin.</div> <bR> <div> Sarah lets Abraham impregnate her servant, Hagar.  The resulting son is Ishmael.  After God fulfills His promise, Sarah gives birth to Isaac.  Ishmael is then hated by Sarah and sent away (Islamic tradition holds that he is the ancestor of all Muslims).</div> <bR> <div> God later tests Abraham by asking him to sacrifice Isaac; at the last minute, God relents and Isaac lives (the site of the sacrifice is traditionally located in Jerusalem).</div> <bR> <div> Jacob, the son of Isaac, buys his older brother (Esau) out of his birthright; Jacob is later re-named "Israel" ("<I>Contending With God</I>") after a wrestling match with either God or an angel.  Eventually, he has 12 sons and several daughters (with several wives).</div> <bR> <div> The youngest, Joseph, is the beloved.  His older brothers (led by Judah), jealous of his position, leave him for dead and claim to their father that it was an accident.  Joseph, meanwhile, is sold into slavery in Egypt where, through a series of miraculous events, he becomes the second in command.</div> <bR> <div> When famine hits, Judah and his brothers travel to Egypt for relief.  There, Joseph tests them and finally reveals himself.  As Genesis closes, the sons of Israel are honored in Egypt and Joseph dies at age 110.</div> <bR> <div> <B>THE EXODUS</B> (c. 1200 BC?)</div> <bR> <div> The (unnamed) Pharaoh declares that there are too many Hebrews in Egypt and enslaves them.  He also decrees that male Hebrew children are to be slaughtered.</div> <bR> <div> Moses (an Egyptian name) of the Levite tribe is born; to protect him, his mother puts him in a basket and floats him down the Nile; there, the daughter of the Pharaoh fishes him out and raises him as her own (with help from a Hebrew servant: Moses' mother!).  Moses is raised as a Prince of Egypt.</div> <bR> <div> At 40, Moses kills an Egyptian who is abusing a slave.  He flees from Egypt and settles in the land of Midian, where he marries Zipporah (or Sephorah), has a son (Gershon), and works for the next 40 years as a shepherd.   Until…..</div> <bR> <div> THE BURNING BUSH</div> <bR> <div> God (who gives his name as <I>Yahweh</I>, meaning, "He causes to become") corners Moses and sends him into Egypt to free the Chosen People (interestingly, God tries to kill him soon after; Zipporah saves him by circumcising their son; Ex 4:24-26).  With his brother Aaron to speak for them, the two demonstrate God's power to a skeptical Pharaoh with the famous 10 Plagues:</div> <bR> <div> 1. the waters turn to blood</div> <div> 2. the plague of frogs</div> <div> 3. the plague of lice</div> <div> 4. the swarms of insects</div> <div> 5. the pestilence on the livestock</div> <div> 6. the plague of soot and dust</div> <div> 7. the plague of hail</div> <div> 8. the plague of locusts</div> <div> 9. the plague of darkness</div> <div> 10. killing the firstborn</div> <bR> <div> This last plague is the worst--unless a lamb is killed (and its blood splashed outside the dwelling door), an angel will kill the firstborn in the house.  If the angel sees the blood of a lamb, however, he will <I>pass over</I> that dwelling and do no harm.  This last plague is a backbreaker.  Pharaoh lets the people go.  Moses--accompanied by Aaron and their sister Miriam--leads everyone out toward the Promised Land.  The Pharaoh has a change of heart and chases Moses with an army.  God has Moses part the Red Sea (some say the Sea of Reeds), and the Pharaoh and his army are drowned.</div> <bR> <div> Once encamped, Moses leaves Aaron in charge and climbs Mount Sinai to meet God.  God gives Moses the 10 Commandments (which you're getting in school--abbreviated-- for educational purposes.  Please keep the ACLU attorneys off my back):</div> <bR> <bR> <div> 1. I am the LORD your God; you shall have no other gods besides Me.</div> <div> 2. You shall not make nor bow down to images, for I am a jealous God.</div> <div> 3. You shall not swear falsely by the name of God.</div> <div> 4. Keep holy the Sabbath day.  Do no work on that day.</div> <div> 5. Honor your father and your mother.</div> <div> 6. You shall not murder.</div> <div> 7. You shall not commit adultery.</div> <div> 8. You shall not steal.</div> <div> 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.</div> <div> 10. You shall not covet anything that belongs to your neighbor.</div> <bR> <div> When Moses comes down the mountain, rebellion and trouble reign.  Over the next 40 or so years, Moses survives attempts on his life, various rebellions, a punishment composed of wandering, and--perhaps most harshly--God's refusal to allow him into the Promised Land.  He oversees the division of land for the 12 tribes, leads the people in battles, and is credited with writing the first five books of the <I>Tanakh</I> (which eventually add 603 more rules to the top 10).  He dies at 120, his body buried in a secret place.  Pieces of the 10 Commandment tablets are stored in the Ark of the Covenant, the most sacred Hebrew relic.</div> <bR> <div> <B>CELEBRATING PASSOVER</B></div> <bR> <div> The meal is called the <I>Seder</I>.  It consists of lamb, herbs, an apple-mash "mortar," wine, matza, and other traditional foods.  Each of the foods has a symbolic meaning, and prayers are recited between "courses."  Traditionally, a cup of wine is left for the prophet Elijah (the first to resurrect anyone from the dead in the Bible).</div> <bR> <div> <B>Hanukkah</B></div> <bR> <div> A relatively minor holiday on the Jewish calendar, Hanukkah (<I>Chanukah</I>) celebrates the rededication of the Temple and the brief reestablishment on an independent Israel.</div> <bR> <div> THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL</div> <bR> <div> After the death of Moses, Joshua led the Hebrews and, through a series of battles, conquered much of the Promised Land.  No King ruled in Israel, however, since God was supposed to be King.  The Levite Priests (descendents of Moses and Aaron) administered the Laws.</div> <bR> <div> Over the years after Joshua, various leaders (some known as Judges) took the lead.  Among these were Samson and Deborah.  One of the last judges was Samuel.</div> <bR> <div> SAMUEL (c. 1100 BC)</div> <bR> <div> Samuel was born a special child to Hannah and Elkanah.  A priest named Eli told her that she would conceive.  When Samuel was born, she dedicated him to God's service.  Eli raised him and trained him, and Samuel vowed to never cut his hair.</div> <bR> <div> When Samuel was very old, the sons of Israel complained that they didn't have a king like other nations.  Samuel tried to warn them off, saying a king would be bad for them.  But God said, "It is Me they have rejected as their king….heed their demand, but warn them solemnly."  So Samuel reluctantly went through the process of getting a king for Israel.</div> <bR> <div> Eventually, the tallest guy in the land, Saul of the tribe of Benjamin, was selected.  Shy and not very bright, Saul began having trouble right away (and the eternal struggle between the secular government and religious ideology began).  During his reign, Israel was forever in a struggle against the Philistines.  Saul did rash things, like pledge to God that no soldier of his would eat until battles were won.  This led to Israel fighting with hungry soldiers.</div> <bR> <div> The last straw comes when God (through Samuel) tells Saul to attack and slaughter the Amalekites.  "Spare no one, but kill alike men and women, infants and sucklings, oxen and sheep, camels and asses!"  Saul and his army beat the Amalekites, but bring home prisoners, food, and the Amalekite king.  Samuel screams that Saul hadn't followed the Lord's command--and hacks apart the Amalekite king.  He then tells Saul that God has rejected him as king.</div> <bR> <div> DAVID</div> <bR> <div> Samuel is directed by God to find a new king.  He travels to Bethlehem, where the 7th and youngest son of Jesse (David, meaning "beloved") is secretly anointed.  David is introduced into the kingdom of Saul in one of two ways:</div> <bR> <div> --he enters as a lyre player to soothe Saul's nerves (God has plagued Saul with an evil</div> <div>    spirit)</div> <div> --he kills the giant Philistine Goliath in a classic battle using a slingshot (and cutting off</div> <div>    the giant's head)</div> <bR> <div> David becomes the best friend of Saul's son Jonathan and, eventually, falls in love with and marries Saul's daughter Michal (David will soon have several wives).  He becomes a general and leads many a successful battle against the Philistines (with the help of another warrior named Joab).  Soon, David's successes make Saul jealous and the older man plans to kill the popular hero.</div> <bR> <div> On the run, David becomes a guerilla fighter, making many alliances.  While in Carmel, he meets and marries his second wife Abigail.  </div> <bR> <div> The death of Samuel leaves Saul desperate, and when he seeks out a witch to contact Samuel's spirit (breaking one of God's laws), the news isn't good.  In the final battle, the mortally wounded Saul commits suicide.  His body is hacked to pieces.  David's friend (and Saul's son) Jonathan is also killed.</div> <bR> <div> KING DAVID</div> <bR> <div> David is anointed King officially in Hebron (c. 1050 BC).  Now 30, with at least three wives, he begins to conquer adjoining areas at God's direction.  He also begins to have children: Amnon, Absalom, Chileab, Adonijah among them.  He suffers a setback when the Philistines steal the Ark of the Covenant, but God's swift punishments return the Ark and David (with the guidance of the prophet Nathan) expands his influence even further.</div> <bR> <div> Perhaps David's greatest victory is the sacking of Jerusalem, the site on which Abraham almost sacrificed Isaac.  David asked God to allow him to build a temple to God there, but God denied him the privilege, saying that David's hands were too bloody.  Still, David built a magnificent palace and made Jerusalem (the site of Abraham's almost-sacrifice) his capital.</div> <bR> <div> Troubles brew when David takes Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite.  When she becomes pregnant with his child, David engineers the death of her husband (with the help of his henchman Joab).  The prophet Nathan confronts David, who confesses his sin.  God punishes David by killing his child with Bathsheba (eventually, she gives birth to his son Solomon).</div> <bR> <div> When David gets old, his sons vie for his kingdom.  One (Amnon) rapes his own half-sister (Tamar), igniting the wrath of her full-brother Absalom.  The handsome Absalom is eventually the favorite to take over as king, but a series of mishaps and jealousies bring about a civil war.  David is run out of his own home and has to become a guerilla fighter again.  In a bloody war, David is victorious (and Absalom is hacked to death by Joab against David's wishes).  An older, tired David is returned to the throne.</div> <bR> <div> On his deathbed, David picks Solomon to be his successor; before he dies, he gives Solomon a list of enemies to kill, including Joab.  Solomon becomes king upon David's death.</div> <bR> <div> KING SOLOMON (c. 1000 BC)</div> <bR> <div> Under Solomon, Israel experiences its glory years.  In the Bible, Israel is described as the richest, most magnificent kingdom in the world (historians view it as a strong medium-sized kingdom with access to good trade routes).  Solomon, said to be very wise, builds the first temple to God.  He also solidifies alliances by marrying the daughters of foreign powers, eventually tallying up 1000 wives and concubines!  These wives lead him down the wrong path, however, when he begins to worship their gods as well (a violation of the 10 Commandments).  In retaliation, God curses Solomon with wars.  Solomon died under these troubling conditions.</div> <bR> <div> His son Rehoboam inherits a kingdom in trouble.  Confused, he trusts in bad advice and tries to be a harsher king than his father.  This eventually leads to a huge split in the kingdom--10 tribes disconnect from Rehoboam and set up rule elsewhere (eventually, these tribes are picked off by attackers and become "lost"; in Mormon tradition, some of them move to North America and become the Indians).</div> <bR> <div> A series of bad kings follow Rehoboam (only Josiah is considered a good king; in some circles, he was thought to by the <I>messiah</I> ("the anointed").  He died in battle in the mountains of Megiddo--later called <I>Armageddon</I>).  The prophets Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel all warn of Israel's impending destruction (Daniel supposedly foretells it specifically), but the people don't listen, and in 587 BC, the kingdom in Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians.  Solomon's temple is wrecked, and captured Israelites are <I>exiled</I> in Babylon.</div> <bR> <div> THE EXILE</div> <bR> <div> While in captivity, the Israelites are first known as Jewish (from <I>Judah</I>, David's tribe).  The Bible tells of an uncomfortable period where their religion is perverted by outside influences.  The idea of the messiah begins to be modified, eventually morphing into the concept of a warrior-king (descended from King David) who will restore Israel to its former glory.</div> <bR> <div> Meanwhile, the area around Jerusalem changes hands many times.  Eventually, a Persian leader allows some of the Jewish captives to return and rebuild--as long as they show their loyalty to him.  A group led by Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild and rededicate what is called the Second Temple.  For years, Israel exists as a puppet state (at some point, the Ark of the Covenant mysteriously disappears).  Eventually, the Greeks (under Alexander) conquer the area.</div> <bR> <div> The death of Alexander leads to the beginning of the end for the Greek empire.  In his will, he divides his power and territory among four generals.  These guys bicker and fight.  Israel eventually comes under the leadership of the Syrian King Antiochus IV Epiphanes (c. 168 BC).</div> <bR> <div> THE MACCABEES</div> <bR> <div> Antiochus angers the residents of Jerusalem by decreeing that the temple of God is now the temple of Zeus; he also sets up an altar to Zeus right inside the temple.  This, combined with a series of oppressive measures, triggers rebellion.</div> <bR> <div> Riots touch off, led by a fighter named Judas and his brothers.  Eventually, they are nicknamed the Maccabees (the hammers).</div> <bR> <div> Judah dies in one of the initial battles (some claim he is the messiah); his brothers, fighting against a weakened Syrian force, defeat them and set up an independent kingdom in Israel for the first time in years (c. 165 BC; accounts of the battles are given in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees in the Apocrypha as well as in Flavius Josephus' <I>The Jewish War</I>.)</div> <bR> <div> HANUKKAH (The Festival of Light, The Feast of Dedication, the Feast of the Maccabees)</div> <bR> <div> The temple is purged and rededicated to Yahweh (by now, saying his name is considered to be taboo, so the word <I>Adonai</I> ["Lord"] is often substituted).  According to the <I>Talmad</I> (rabbinic commentary on the Bible), the high priest could find oil enough to burn for only one day, but God miraculously made it burn for 8; the standard <I>menorah</I> (which held seven candles--one for each day of the week) had one candle-holder added for Hanukkah as a result.</div> <bR> <div> CELEBRATING HANUKKAH</div> <bR> <div> It's now celebrated on 8 consecutive days in <I>Kish</I>, the 3rd month of the Jewish calendar (roughly, December on the Gregorian Calendar).  Prayers are read and the candles are lit from right to left, one per night.  The Hanukkah <I>menorah</I> is to be placed in the window, and while the candles burn, women aren't supposed to work.  Traditional foods, like potato pancakes (<I>latkes</I>), are served.  Kids sometimes play a game of chance with the <I>dradle</I>, a top-like device that is said to date back to the time of Antiochus.  Gifts are also exchanged.</div> <bR> <div> In the U.S., Hanukkah was sometimes celebrated in competition with Christmas, and thus developed the ideas of the Hanukkah bush and Hanukkah Harry (a Santa-like figure who brings gifts).  Happily for most of those who are religious, these "traditions" died quickly.</div> <bR> <div> <B>CHRISTMAS</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>"Christ's-Mass," the traditional birthday of Jesus of Nazareth, later known as Jesus Christ </I>("Christ" meaning "anointed one")</div> <bR> <div> THE POLITICAL CLIMATE</div> <bR> <div> Independent Israel, established by the Maccabees, ended up falling to the Roman general Pompeii (c. 50 BC).  The Romans divided the kingdom (which they called <I>Palestine</I>) into several areas (called <I>Tetrachies</I>), and put puppet Jewish leaders in charge (they also began to appoint the high priest in the temple, a very contentious proposition).  Among these was King Herod the Great.</div> <bR> <div> HEROD</div> <bR> <div> Hated by most because his family were Arab converts to Judaism, Herod was a cutthroat who murdered even his own sons (and at least one wife).  Paradoxically, he oversaw the building of terrific structures, including the beautiful port city of Caesarea.  His most famous/infamous project was the improvements he made to the Second Temple (called "Herod's Temple").  Loyal to Rome--and to himself--his rule was marked by brutality and his personal life by much drama (he died, according to Josephus, in about 6 BC, his private parts eaten away by worms).</div> <bR> <div> Under Herod's rule, threats to the throne were treated seriously.  Even so, Jewish resistance groups (e.g., the <I>Sicarii</I>) began to form, in the hope that--like the Maccabees--they might one day take back Israel from the invaders (as such, the messiah was expected any day, and disappointment often occurred when those thought to be the messiah turned out not to be).  The dominant Jewish groups at the time were the Sadducees (the temple priests), the Pharisees (precursors to modern rabbinic Judaism), and the Essenes (a separatist group who lived apart from the others).</div> <bR> <div> THE BIRTH OF JESUS</div> <bR> <div> The NT contains four "biographies" of Jesus called gospels (<I>good news</I>).  No one really knows who wrote them, though in two cases, the books are 'signed' (Luke, c. 90 AD? and John the Apostle, c. 100 AD?).  Tradition holds that Matthew (c. 60 AD?) was written by one of Jesus' apostles, and that (St.) Peter dictated Mark (c. 50 AD?) to John Mark, one of his assistants.</div> <bR> <div> Of these four, only two (Matthew and Luke) deal with the birth of Jesus, which historians guess took place c. 6 BC.</div> <bR> <div> THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW</div> <bR> <div> Joseph, a carpenter (and a descendent of David), is about to marry Mary when she turns up pregnant ("through the Holy Spirit").  Joseph at first intends to break off the marriage agreement, but is told in a dream by God to take Mary as a wife.</div> <bR> <div> Later, a strange star intrigues a group of <I>magi</I> (Persian astrologers; <I>magi</I> is the root word for <I>magician</I>).  They follow the star, and it brings them to Herod's palace.  There, they tell Herod the star is leading them to the "King of the Jews."  Herod--the King of the Jews as far as <U>he's</U> concerned--tells them to let <I>him</I> know where this king is so <I>he </I>may worship him, too (Herod intends, of course, to kill him).</div> <bR> <div> The star leads the magi to a house in Bethlehem (the City of David), where they gift the child with gold, frankincense (a type of perfume), and myrrh (an oil) [from the gifts develops the tradition of Three Wise Men or Three Kings; they are later named Caspar, Balthazar, and Melchior; in Latino traditions, the Three Kings bring gifts to children on January 6 (<I>Epiphany</I>); <U>none</U> of this appears in the gospel].  They are told in a dream not to return to Herod, so they ride off back home on a different route.</div> <bR> <div> Herod, enraged, orders that all male children two and under be put to death (<I>The Slaughter of the Innocents</I>, the subject of the Christmas tune "The Coventry Carol"). <I>This indicates the possibility that Jesus could have been two years old at the time of the visit from the magi</I>. Warned ahead of time by God, Joseph takes his family into Egypt (ironic?) to hide.  He stays until after Herod's death, then returns to Israel.  Upon hearing that Herod's son, Archelaus, has taken power, Joseph moves the family to Nazareth where Jesus grows up.</div> <bR> <div> THE GOSPEL OF LUKE</div> <bR> <div> Luke, writing a letter to Theophilus, claims to be a doctor who researched the life of Jesus.</div> <bR> <div> JOHN THE BAPTIST (JESUS' COUSIN)</div> <bR> <div> Zechariah, a priest at the temple, and his wife Elizabeth, are childless in their old age.  The angel Gabriel appears and tells him he and his wife will have a son who will announce the coming of the messiah.  When Zechariah expresses doubts, God punishes him by muting his voice.  Sure enough, his wife conceives.</div> <bR> <div> About six months later, Gabriel appears to Mary (a descendent of David) in Nazareth, telling her she shall conceive "the son of the Most High."  Mary, a virgin, questions how this will happen.  Gabriel explains that the Holy Spirit will take care of it.  Sure enough, she conceives.</div> <bR> <div> When Mary goes to visit her cousin Elizabeth, John the Baptist leaps for joy in his mom's womb.  Three months later, Mary returns home.</div> <bR> <div> John is born.  Taken to the temple for circumcision, his father names him--and God miraculously heals Zechariah's muteness.  John grows up, spending most of his time living in the wilderness.</div> <bR> <div> THE BIRTH OF JESUS</div> <bR> <div> Caesar Augustus declares a census; everyone must travel to the city of his or her birth to register (there is no record of such a census in existence).  This means Joseph has to travel with Mary to his birthplace, Bethlehem.  Mary is nine months pregnant.  When they arrive after the long journey, there are no rooms for them.  An innkeeper allows them to stay in a manger (basically, a barn; Orthodox tradition holds that Jesus was born in a cave).  There, among the animals, Mary gives birth to Jesus.</div> <bR> <div> Shepherds tending sheep at night in the fields are terrified by angels (this indicates that Jesus wasn't born in December).  The angels calm them down, and announce the birth of Jesus, saying, "Today there has been born to you….the messiah, the Lord."  The shepherds visit the baby at the manger.</div> <bR> <div> Jesus is circumcised at the temple at the age of 8 days.  Simeon and Anna praise him.</div> <bR> <div> When next we see Jesus, he's 12 and in Jerusalem for the Passover; his folks have accidentally left him behind.  Three days later, they find him teaching in the temple.  "Didn't you know I'd be in my Father's house?" he asks his worried parents.</div> <bR> <div> When next we see Jesus, he's starting his mission at "about 30."  Tradition holds he worked at Joseph's trade (carpentry) until then.</div> <bR> <div> Combining both gospel accounts has produced the standard Nativity (Christmas Story) over the years.  Significantly missing: trees, wreaths, mistletoe, Santa Claus, etc.  Where do these come from?</div> <bR> <div> <B>PRE-CHRISTMAS FESTIVALS</B></div> <bR> <div> Much of what's done at Christmas comes from celebrations that occurred before Jesus was born.  Modern Christmas celebrations include elements from Celtic, Roman, German, Scandinavian, and other festivals.  Many of these were Solstice Festivals--honoring the sun.  Eventually, the Christian church incorporated these elements--to honor "the Son" (the Dec. 25th birth for Jesus was set for this reason, though most experts think he was born in the fall).</div> <bR> <div> Some pagan gods with similar histories include:</div> <bR> <div> The Roman <I>Attis </I>(c. 200 BC): The son of the virgin Nana, Attis was born Dec 25 and was sacrificed as an adult on a tree in March.</div> <bR> <div> The Persian <I>Mithras</I> (c. 500 BC): The Persian savior-god, he was born on Dec. 25, performed many miracles, and ascended into the heavens during the spring equinox after sharing a meal with his followers ([St.] Paul was raised in Tarsus, a city with a temple dedicated to Mithras).</div> <bR> <div> All ancient cultures have a solstice tradition, and many (as we've seen) honor the Sun as a god.  The Winter Solstice (c. December 21) is the time when the sun seems the farthest (thanks to the way the earth rotates).  In the northern hemisphere, the days are shortest around then.  To the ancients, the sun was "going away" and needed to be brought back.  Thus, many festivals featured fire (Scandinavia's Yule log), evergreens (considered to be mystical), circles (considered to be mystical), and meat (cold temperatures and a good harvest meant plenty at a time when feasting on meat was truly special).  Good booze was also very welcome (and often healthier than the local drinking water).</div> <bR> <div> THE ROMAN SATURNALIA FESTIVAL</div> <bR> <div> Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture.  He is depicted as having a long white beard.  Supposedly, after being dethroned, he fled to Italy where he ruled over a Golden Age.  The Festival in his honor lasted 7 days, and was thought to herald the return of the Golden Age.</div> <bR> <div> --businesses were closed</div> <div> --homes were decorated with evergreens</div> <div> --military operations (where possible) were postponed</div> <div> --gifts were exchanged during family visits</div> <div> --slaves were temporarily freed and fed from their master's table ("topsy-turvy")</div> <div> --banquets were held featuring meat</div> <bR> <div> The Festival spread into Britain, where it was incorporated into Druid (Celtic Priests) rituals.</div> <bR> <div> Following the Roman "conversion" to Christianity (with the declaration of Emperor Constantine), the Church attempted to stop all pre-Christian ("pagan") celebrations.  This didn't wear well among the public, however, and after a long struggle, Christianity incorporated the customs ("sanctified by connection with the Church") and switched former "sun" rituals to the celebration of the "Son" (<I>symbol-shifting magicians?</I>).  The first official Christmas was celebrated in the year 336.  Many elements of the topsy-turvy society remained.  Peasants wandered drunkenly, demanding gifts, food, and drink (these folks were often sarcastically dubbed 'Kris Kringle'--<I>Christ Child</I>--in the way people will sarcastically call bad people 'angels'; food was often left out to appease them); the King of Fools was crowned; law and order (much like today's New Year's Celebrations) went out the window.  Throughout Europe, calls to ban Christmas (because of the pagan elements as well as the lawlessness) were sometimes heeded; Christmas was actually illegal in England for many years (the Puritans in the New World also outlawed it).</div> <bR> <div> DICKENS TO THE RESCUE</div> <bR> <div> The old-fashioned "home-for-the-holidays" Christmas was an invention of Charles Dickens in his 1843 novella, "A Christmas Carol" (the one about Scrooge).  Dickens sets the pattern for the holiday in the story:</div> <bR> <div> --donate to charity (strangers)</div> <div> --give time off, plus a bonus (employees)</div> <div> --visit family and bring gifts</div> <bR> <div> (Today, of course, Christmas gift giving is absurdly BIG; U.S. retailers do 50% of their yearly sales between Thanksgiving and Christmas Eve.  <I>50%!!</I>).</div> <bR> <div> The popularity of the old-fashioned Christmas stems some of the earlier rowdier elements.</div> <bR> <div> ROCKIN' AROUND THE CHRISTMAS TREE</div> <bR> <div> Evergreens--being <I>ever green</I>--were considered to be magic plants by many ancient societies.</div> <bR> <div> Tree-worship was common among Celts and Germans (Druid priests often climbed trees to get closer to the gods; Germans and Scandinavians decorated trees to scare off demons).  Later, Martin Luther (one of the movers behind the Protestant Revolution) was said to decorate a tree with candles to remind his kids that Christmas was the celebration of Jesus--the Light of the World (though this story is almost certainly false).  German trees were later decorated with Holy Wafers and cakes, then, finally, figures, candles, and a star.  German settlers in the New World bring the tree with them (17th century); England's Queen Victoria and Prince Albert set up a tree in the palace in the 1800s (much to the chagrin of the Puritans).</div> <bR> <bR> <div> "YES, VIRGINIA, THERE <U>IS</U> A SANTA CLAUS"</div> <bR> <div> As a figure associated with Christmas, Santa Claus (a slurring of "St. Nicolas") is running a close second to Jesus these days (this does not make religious Christians happy).</div> <bR> <div> JOLLY OLD ST. NICK</div> <bR> <div> Santa derives his name from the Christian Saint Nicolas, Bishop of Myra (near modern-day Turkey) in the 300s AD.  Not much is known about Nicolas--whether or not he actually lived is a subject for debate (some say he's the Christian incarnation of the Roman sea-god Neptune).  He is credited with miracles and with bringing toys to children; he is depicted as being white-bearded; he was chosen the patron saint of Russia and Greece, and his feast day is December 6 (he brings toys to Russian and Greek Orthodox children on January 6--Epiphany).  In England, the St. Nick figure becomes Father Christmas (given in big boost with his depiction as the Spirit of Christmas Present by Dickens); in France, he is called Pere Noel.</div> <bR> <div> In other parts of Europe, the Nicholas figure began to merge with the Kris Kringle figure and, at first, the figure of Santa was that of a thief, a peasant, and an invader (just like the peasant class who caused so much trouble earlier).  His bag was meant to store the things he took, not the gifts he brings; food was left out to appease him, not to please him.  Some of this can still be detected in popular depictions of Santa:</div> <bR> <div> "He sees you when you're sleeping; he knows when you're awake; he knows if you've been bad or good…."  <I>Santa the Stalker!!</I></div> <bR> <div> In Moore's <I>A Visit From St. Nicholas </I>(which begins the transformation of Santa): "A wink of his eye an a twist of his head soon gave me to know I had <U>nothing to dread</U>" (why dread Santa?)…..</div> <bR> <div> Early depictions of Santa also depict him as an <U>elf</U>.  Moore again:</div> <bR> <div> "When what to my wondering eyes should appear but a <I>miniature</I> sleigh and eight <I>tiny </I>reindeer…." (notable, too, are the reindeer on the lawn; they couldn't fly then).</div> <bR> <div> "He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old <I>elf</I>…." (someone who could fit down a chimney).</div> <bR> <div> In Germany, the St. Nicholas figure is accompanied by a punisher called Rupert of the Night (<I>Knecht Ruprecht</I>).  St. Nicholas rewards the good children (though on Christmas Day, it's the Christ Child who is said to have brought the gifts); Rupert punishes the bad (in Austria, the Rupert figure is an evil dwarf called <I>the Krampus</I>).  Traditionally, Rupert carries a stick and a bag.  Bad children are beaten with the stick; really bad children are dragged off in the bag!  In other cultures, the Rupert figure is called "Black Peter," and it was by offshoots of this term (<I>Belsnickle</I>) that hooligans rumbling on Christmas Eve in Europe and early America were named.</div> <bR> <div> With Moore, St. Nick (or Santa) becomes transformed--a friendly figure, seeking to give.  The Dutch incarnation, <I>Sinter Claes</I>, is very influential in the U.S. thanks to Dutch immigration.  Eventually, Coca-Cola drawings of a big, red-suited Santa set the image in the U.S.</div> <bR> <div> <B>EASTER</B></div> <bR> <div> "…and if Christ was not raised, then our gospel is null and void, and so too is your faith,"</div> <div> [St.] Paul, 1 Corinthians</div> <bR> <div> <I>The most important day on the Christian calendar, Easter </I>(from the fertility goddess Eostre) <I>celebrates the resurrection of Jesus</I>.</div> <bR> <div> THE CAREER OF JESUS: A BRIEF OVERVIEW</div> <bR> <div> Jesus began his public life at "about 30" according to Luke.  He was baptized by his cousin John in the Jordan River, and John sent some of his own disciples (from the root word meaning 'discipline') after Jesus because, "He must increase; I must decrease" (John is later killed by Herod-Antipas, a puppet ruler whose wife was stung by John's indictment of their adultery).  Jesus eventually gathered hundreds of followers; of these, he picked 12 apostles (meaning roughly, "those who are to be sent out").  The most famous of these are Simon-Peter, James and John (the sons of Zebedee), Matthew, and, of course, Judas Iscariot (Paul, a very influential figure, doesn't enter the scene until after Jesus is killed).</div> <bR> <div> An itinerant teacher, Jesus thrills many and aggravates many more.  Famously, he is almost killed by a mob near his own synagogue ("A prophet is never accepted in his own village"), and even his own family questions him ("He's gone out of his mind!").  His hometown of Nazareth is sometimes a hindrance ("Can anything good come out of Nazareth?").  At times, he shows slavish devotion to the Laws of Moses ("Do not think I came to abolish the Law"); at other times, he interprets the Law in ways different from his predecessors ("You've heard it said….but I say to you….").  The gospels show him clashing relentlessly with the Pharisees (roughly, "the Holy Ones") and the Sanhedrin (a 70-member high court, presided over by the High Priest, who was--remember--an appointee of the hated Romans).  He is also seen in the company of sinners (prostitutes, tax collectors, etc.), and this causes much talk.  In spite of all this, at the beginning of the last week of his life, he entered Jerusalem a very popular hero.</div> <bR> <div> In addition to teaching in parables (stories with a lesson), Jesus is also credited with many miracles: healing the sick, curing the blind, even raising the dead.  At one point, he feeds thousands of people with just a few loaves of bread and a scattering of fish.  At another point, he calms a storm at sea.  </div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> Perhaps his most famous teachings are the Beatitudes (reproduced here for educational purposes only; please <U>continue</U> to keep the ACLU off my back):</div> <bR> <div> 1. Blessed are the poor in spirit; the kingdom of Heaven is theirs.</div> <div> 2. Blessed are the sorrowful; they shall find consolation.</div> <div> 3. Blessed are the meek; they shall inherit the earth.</div> <div> 4. Blessed are the hungry and thirsty for righteousness; they will be satisfied.</div> <div> 5. Blessed are the merciful; mercy will be shown to them.</div> <div> 6. Blessed are the pure in heart; they will see God.</div> <div> 7. Blessed are the peacemakers; they will be called children of God.</div> <div> 8. Blessed are those persecuted for righteousness; the kingdom of Heaven is theirs.</div> <bR> <div> JESUS AS MESSIAH</div> <bR> <div>      According to the gospels, Simon-Peter is the first to recognize Jesus as the Messiah.  Jesus instructs him to be quiet about it.  Later, Jesus is charged (partly) with claiming to be the messiah.  The claim is central to the Christian faith and is a key as to why Jesus was executed.</div> <bR> <div> THE TRIAL OF JESUS</div> <bR> <div>      According to the gospels, one of the 12--Judas Iscariot--turned Jesus in.  The gospels say the Devil entered into him.</div> <div>      Historians who don't like that explanation offer alternative theories.  One that seems good is the idea that Judas was a former revolutionary (the term "Iscariot" roughly translates, "of the knife," and comes from the same root word as <I>Sicarii</I>--a revolutionary group who used short swords, as we've seen).  If Judas believed Jesus to be the messiah in the tradition of David (a warrior-king who would lead an army to wipe out the invaders), certain of Jesus' teachings (<I>e.g.</I>, "turn the other cheek") must have infuriated him.  In this theory, Judas turns Jesus in because he's enraged that he's been duped.</div> <bR> <div> THE LAST SUPPER</div> <bR> <div>      A Passover Seder, Jesus breaks bread (and passes around wine) with his disciples for the last time (c. 30-36?) before his arrest.  According to [St.] Paul and the gospels, Jesus institutes the Eucharist at this time (after identifying Judas as his betrayer and dismissing him from the table).  Later, Jesus--knowing he's to die--begs God in prayer to allow "this cup to pass."  Shortly thereafter, he is kissed by Judas (to identify him) and is arrested by the Temple Police (in some versions, Peter fights back and cuts off someone's ear; Jesus restores it).</div> <div>      He is brought before the high priest Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin (Jewish scholars note that these events are impossible, because the court would never have been allowed to convene on Passover).  Asked if he's the messiah, Jesus replies that he is.  The Sanhedrin sends him to the Roman Procurator, Pontius Pilate.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> PILATE</div> <bR> <div>       After Herod the Great's son fouled things up, the Romans established the procurator system.  Pontius Pilate was the fifth of these in the area around Jerusalem.</div> <div>      Roman procurators hated the Passover season.  The celebration of the deliverance of the Hebrews from slavery fired up the descendents who wanted deliverance from Caesar.  The procurator's job was to keep order, and interfere as little as possible, though threats to Rome were to be taken seriously.</div> <div>      By most non-gospel accounts, Pilate was a brutal guy.  He had, in fact, been warned by Rome to lighten up.  The last thing he needed was controversy over some obscure preacher.</div> <div>      When presented with Jesus, the gospels paint him as reluctant to act.  The charge--that Jesus was claiming to be the messiah and, as such, a king--was an important one (Rome didn't need anyone declaring themselves king on <I>their</I> turf).  At first, Pilate is frustrated when Jesus won't answer his questions (in Luke, he even attempts to get himself off the hook by sending Jesus to Herod-Antipas; Antipas, already with the blood of John the Baptist on his hands, sends him right back).</div> <div>      Upon his return, Pilate has Jesus brutally beaten (scourged), but still refuses to sentence him to death.  In a controversial scene (which some historians argue is quite out of character for Pilate), the procurator attempts to have Jesus exonerated, but is overwhelmed by the crowd and reluctantly sentences Jesus to death (after publicly washing his hands, claiming no responsibility).  In some gospels, those present supposedly take the blame upon themselves; this, of course, has caused major controversy to this day.</div> <bR> <div> WHO KILLED JESUS?</div> <bR> <div>      It's pretty obvious Jesus was executed by the Romans.  Crucifixion was a Roman form of the death penalty (the Laws of Moses proscribed stoning to death), reserved for the worst criminals (those convicted of treason among them).  The Latin historian Tacitus writes of "Chrestus" (Christ) being crucified during the reign of Tiberius--exactly the time Jesus lived.  Jesus was probably killed because of the claim that he was a king.  To the Romans, that meant he was a revolutionary, deserving of death.  Traditionally, Jesus was 33 when he died--though he may have been in his 40s.</div> <bR> <div> DEATH AND RESURRECTION</div> <bR> <div>      The gospels speak of Jesus being crucified at noon on a Friday (one says at 9 AM), and dying at about 3 PM.  The various depictions describe him speaking and forgiving those who put him to death; miraculous weather changes are recorded after he dies.  His body was taken down and entrusted to Joseph of Arimethea.  Joseph buried Jesus in his family tomb (a cave), the mouth of which was covered by a huge rock.  A Roman guard was posted by Pilate to discourage anyone messing with the body.</div> <div>      On the following Sunday morning, the tomb is empty (various gospels recount different stories about who got there first), and, later, Jesus is seen in a series of miraculous sightings.  According to the Acts of the Apostles, he spent 40 days on earth after his resurrection, and then ascended into Heaven in view of a few chosen apostles.  His disciples on earth then began to teach in his name.  Over time, what was once a Jewish movement started by a Jewish teacher broke away from Judaism.</div> <bR> <div> CELEBRATING EASTER</div> <bR> <div>      Like most other holidays, Easter is a combination of pre-Christian and post-Christian elements.  And, like most other holidays, the church fought against it for a time, then incorporated many pre-Christian elements (including the name).</div> <bR> <div> PRE-CHRISTIAN SOLSTICE CELEBRATIONS</div> <bR> <div>      Like the Winter Solstice, the Spring Solstice inspired to ancients to party.  The hope of spring brought growth and renewal (symbolized by fertility symbols like rabbits and eggs).  Because in Christian belief Jesus was brought back to life at the time when the Sun, too, seemed to be coming back to life, many of the traditions mixed over the years.</div> <div>      Today, people celebrate Easter with egg hunts, chocolate rabbits, attendance at religious services (often at daybreak), and a ham.  The period of Lent ("spring") ends at Easter, and things sacrificed for Lent enjoyed again.</div> <div>      Easter, like Hanukkah and Passover, is a movable feast; that is, the date isn't fixed (unlike Christmas, Hallowe'en, Valentine's Day, etc.).  The date for Easter is tied to the old Jewish calendar, which used the phases of the moon as the basis for counting (the Gregorian Calendar, in use now, uses the orbit of the earth around the sun).</div> <bR> <div>                                                                               *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>King Arthur</B></div> <bR> <div> A European myth centered in Celtic tradition (with elements from French and British writers as well as things borrowed from King David and Jesus), the Tales of King Arthur ("the once and future king") still sell tickets today.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Early Roman Origins</B></div> <bR> <div> Arthur is a Roman name (from <I>Artorius</I>).  When the Romans left Britain in the 400s A.D., civil wars broke out, and leaders trained in Roman battle tactics began to carve the land up into territories.  It's possible a "King Arthur" arose at this time (this is the basis of the 2004 film, <I>King Arthur</I>).</div> <bR> <div> <B>Originating the Myth</B></div> <bR> <div> Arthur legends began being written in the 1100s by Irish and English authors.  Later, a French writer (Chretien de Troyes) adds much sex.  The definitive Arthur collection is <I>Morte de Arthur</I> by Sir Thomas Malory.  Over the years, other editions (<I>The Once and Future King</I>) have been popular.</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Legends</B></div> <bR> <div> MERLIN</div> <bR> <div> The legendary wizard/advisor to Arthur.</div> <bR> <div> The earliest Merlin stories have him living in the Caledonian Forest (Wales), a Wildman driven crazy by the horrors of war; this may be a morphing of an earlier Druid legend.</div> <bR> <div> Later, Merlin appears as a Nostradamus-like seer, uttering obscure prophecies.  By the 1200s, Merlin is thought to have been a trained scholar/prophet, and by the 1800s, Tennyson is referring to him as a wizard.</div> <bR> <div> THE BIRTH OF MERLIN</div> <bR> <div> A demon is said to have raped a nun, resulting in Merlin (who was intended to be the Antichrist).  When the nun confessed the rape, the priest foiled the demon's plan: Merlin was born with the knowledge of the past and all the supernatural powers, but he had a good (not an evil) heart.  Merlin later detailed the history of the Holy Grail to the priest.</div> <bR> <div> Merlin was raised by the shape-shifter Nimue, later his lover.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> MERLIN AS ADVISOR</div> <bR> <div> Merlin first makes his name as advisor to King Vortigern of Britain.  He won fame for seeing that the king's castle was built on two fighting dragons.  Later, Merlin advised Vortigern's son, Uther Pendragon.</div> <bR> <div> MERLIN GETS ARTHUR CONCEIVED</div> <bR> <div> Uther lusted after Igraine, the wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall.  Merlin agreed to change Uther into the likeness of Gorlois <I>if</I> the resultant child would be turned over to him (shades of Rumpelstiltskin).  Gorlois was killed in battle the very night Igraine conceived Uther's child.  Uther later marries Igraine and the child--<U>Arthur</U>--is turned over to Merlin (the special child again).  Merlin entrusts Arthur to the care of Sir Ector who raises him.</div> <bR> <div> THE SWORD IN THE STONE</div> <bR> <div> Every Easter Sunday, Merlin sets up a test to see who is the true King--pulling a sword from a stone.  Of course, only Arthur can do this.  Merlin becomes Arthur's advisor.  Like King David before him, Arthur begins to garner a reputation when he fights a giant.  In the battle, his sword is broken.  Merlin helps him to get Excalibur (the singing sword) from the Lady in the Lake.  Because Arthur is only 12, a civil war touches off.  Eventually, Arthur and his knights (Lancelot, his son Galahad, Bors, Perceval, etc.,) are victorious.</div> <bR> <div> CAMELOT</div> <bR> <div> Arthur establishes his castle (Camelot), marries the Lady Guinevere, and peace reigns.  He establishes the Round Table for conferences, where all are equal.  Arthur's sister, Morgan le Faye (daughter of Gorlois and Igraine) joins him at Camelot.</div> <bR> <div> TROUBLES BREW</div> <bR> <div> Guinevere and Lancelot fall in love; their affair devastates Arthur (which, in turn, affects the land).  Guinevere is exiled (the Irish versions have her killed).  Merlin is entrapped by Nimue after teaching her his secrets and is imprisoned in a tree (or amber or a cave or a tomb; choose which version you like).  Arthur impregnates his half-sister (she casts a spell on him), and their son, Mordred, becomes a threat to the throne.</div> <bR> <div> THE QUEST FOR THE HOLY GRAIL</div> <bR> <div> The Holy Grail: the cup Jesus used at the Last Supper</div> <bR> <div> The Story: a mix of biblical and apocryphal tales, with some material from <I>The Lives of the Saints</I>, created by medieval clergy and spread by monks</div> <bR> <div> BACKGROUND</div> <bR> <div> When Jesus was betrayed, the Temple Police supposedly took possession of the cup.  Later, it was turned over to Pilate, who, in turn, gave it to Joseph of Arimathia.  Joseph supposedly caught the blood of Christ in the cup before he buried him.</div> <bR> <div> Joseph was later imprisoned for many decades; manna from the cup sustained him.</div> <bR> <div> The Emperor Vespasian eventually freed Joseph, who journeyed to the Roman province of Britain.  Along the way, the Grail is credited with miracles (Bron, Joseph's brother-in-law, feeds hundreds with one fish with the Grail's help, and becomes known as the Fisher King).</div> <bR> <div> Joseph settles somewhere in Britain (Glastonbury?), and hides the Grail.</div> <bR> <div> CONNECTION TO ARTHUR</div> <bR> <div> Merlin shared the secret of the Grail first with a priest then with the Knights of the Round Table.  Eventually, Arthur ordered a Quest for the Grail.  Galahad, Perceval, and Bors are the knights most associated with it.</div> <bR> <div> The Quest is full of peril and death.  Different legends credit different knights with success; in some, the Grail is glimpsed, but not captured.</div> <bR> <div> THE GRAIL IN POPULAR CULTURE</div> <bR> <div> <I>Monty Python and the Holy Grail</I> (1975) is the English comedy group's best film, a satire on the Arthur legends.  <I>Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade</I> (1989), the third Indy adventure, has him discovering the Grail.  Dan Brown's <I>The DaVinci Code</I> (2003) asserts that the Grail is not the cup of Christ, but rather the secret that Jesus and Mary Magdalene married, had kids, and have descendents on earth today (the identity of those descendents is the Grail, and secret societies like the Knights Templar are sworn to keep it so).</div> <bR> <div> THE DEATH OF ARTHUR</div> <bR> <div> Arthur, old and worn (<I>very</I> King David) defends against attack from the forces of Mordred.  In the final battle, Arthur kills his son and is mortally wounded himself.  Before he can die, the sword Excalibur is tossed back into the lake, and angels bring Arthur to the Island of Avalon (the Island of Apples), where the Apples of Immortality grow.</div> <bR> <div> In a deep sleep, Arthur is buried; his tomb reads, "Here Lies Arthur, the Once and Future King."  When the time is right, Arthur will arise and rule once more (<I>very</I> messianic).</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>WHY ARTHUR WORKS TODAY</B></div> <bR> <div> --We desire certainty (a divine ruler accomplishes that).</div> <div> --We have hope for a life filled with peace, food, fun, friends, love, and good cheer</div> <div>     (Camelot).</div> <div> --We know jealousy and betrayal (Guinevere and Lancelot).</div> <div> --We search for good in an insane world (the Grail Quest).</div> <div> --We hope for life renewed (the once and future king).</div> <bR> <div>                                                                    *   *   *</div> <bR> <div> <B>Robin Hood</B></div> <bR> <div> <I>A former nobleman, the legendary Robin Hood robs from the rich and gives to the poor…..</I></div> <bR> <div> Origin - Was There a Real Robin?</div> <bR> <div> Scholars disagree--see attached "Legendary History" material.  Poems and songs about Robin Hood have been written since the 1300s.</div> <bR> <div> The Legend</div> <bR> <div> The most famous legends concerning Robin and his band of Merry Men (Little John, Will Scarlet, the rebel priest Friar Tuck, etc.) take place in Sherwood Forest (Nottinghamshire, England).  Other legends have Robin's 'home-base' set in Barnesdale, Yorkshire.</div> <bR> <div> The legendary Robin became famous for robbing and killing those who represented government and the church; he supposedly stood up for the needy and the oppressed (while working outside the law).  Legendary, too, is his romance with the Maid Marian.  Many elements from the Robin Hood legend found their way into the Cromwellian world view, which briefly abolished the monarchy in Britain (c. 1650).</div> <bR> <div> In Literature</div> <bR> <div> Robin Hood remains a popular figure in stories, films, and TV shows.</div> <bR> <div> Influence</div> <bR> <div> The moral rebel, working outside the law to right wrongs committed by authority, is very popular in American culture.  Films today feature crusading journalists or rugged individualists who "fight the system" (often portrayed as corrupt) for the greater good of society.  In Robin Hood, we find the seed of these stories.</div> <bR> <div>                                          &nb